• Use of personal protective equipment including masks for respiratory protection, goggles
for eye protection, gloves for hand protection,
boots for foot protection, and long-sleeved
clothes for skin protection
• Cleaning of contaminated tools and clothes
on-site
• Washing hands frequently with soap
• Keeping fingernails short and clean
• Cover and regularly disinfect wounds
• Avoid direct contact with wastewater
• Using a separate set of clothing for working
with wastewater
• Safety instructions to labourers by farmers
(5) Safety measures for consumers
Pathogens survive for a low time on crops
exposed to sunlight. However, they can still pose
a risk to crop handlers and consumers (FAO
1997). Consumers who consume uncooked or
inadequately cooked produce are also at risk of
microbial infections. Hygienic food preparation
measures are washing, cooking, and peeling of
food produce.
A range of options to reduce the risk levels
after prioritizing the potential risks to the
exposed group such as operational methods (e.g.,
crop restrictions, longer retention time, and vector control) and behavioral methods (e.g., use of
personal protective equipment, health education,
and regular health check-ups) were chosen by
farmers as measures for improvement. The factors should be considered in the selection of an
appropriate safety measure: potential for
improving
the
existing
control,
costeffectiveness, technical feasibility, acceptability,
and reliability of the measure in relation to the
local cultural and behavioral habits.
4 Conclusions and Outlook
Direct usage of raw wastewater leads to health
risks for farmers, crop handlers, and livestock. The
risks can be minimized if treated wastewater is
used for irrigation instead of raw sewage. In line
with the recommendation that WHO guidelines
need to be adapted to the specific conditions at the
respective site of wastewater irrigation (Carr
2005). From this study, it emerges that the use of
filters as a preliminary treatment measure and other
locally available cost-effective solutions for treating wastewater is highly recommended. The use of
personal protective equipment as a safety measure
should be made mandatory for farmers working
with wastewater. A good understanding of irrigation methods among farmers will lower health
risks and ensure product quality and safety. Feasible control measures for mitigating risks associated with wastewater farming observed in the
study area were the storage of irrigation water prior
to application on fields, screening, filtration, and
stopping irrigation (allowing pathogens to die off)
before harvesting. Some measures for postharvested produce include washing of produce in
freshwater before selling at the market and ensuring hygienic cooking practices. There is a strong
need for awareness, workshops, and training for
farmers and other stakeholders regarding the
adverse effects of untreated wastewater use for
irrigation on the one hand and safe practices of
wastewater use on the other hand.
There is a need to carry out many more epidemiological studies to better understand the
health implications of the wastewater irrigation
practice. Studies need to be conducted keeping in
mind the role of medical waste and its impact on
wastewater quality and more scientific data
should be gathered focusing on the microbiological, chemical, and toxicological parameters
of wastewater. A health impact assessment study
on consumer health after consumption of
wastewater-irrigated crops is also needed.
Wastewater use, when adopted with best management practices, has huge potential to benefit
farmers, improve public health by eliminating
unsafe waste disposal, and enrich soil nutrient
content. It is recommended to engage all stakeholders, from policymakers to sanitation experts,
agriculture experts, health departments, and civil
society organizations, to provide a culture
of better understanding of wastewater use in
a participatory approach, which had been successfully applied in the area before (Halkatti et al.
2016).
54
G. Ramakrishna and M. Hanisch
for eye protection, gloves for hand protection,
boots for foot protection, and long-sleeved
clothes for skin protection
• Cleaning of contaminated tools and clothes
on-site
• Washing hands frequently with soap
• Keeping fingernails short and clean
• Cover and regularly disinfect wounds
• Avoid direct contact with wastewater
• Using a separate set of clothing for working
with wastewater
• Safety instructions to labourers by farmers
(5) Safety measures for consumers
Pathogens survive for a low time on crops
exposed to sunlight. However, they can still pose
a risk to crop handlers and consumers (FAO
1997). Consumers who consume uncooked or
inadequately cooked produce are also at risk of
microbial infections. Hygienic food preparation
measures are washing, cooking, and peeling of
food produce.
A range of options to reduce the risk levels
after prioritizing the potential risks to the
exposed group such as operational methods (e.g.,
crop restrictions, longer retention time, and vector control) and behavioral methods (e.g., use of
personal protective equipment, health education,
and regular health check-ups) were chosen by
farmers as measures for improvement. The factors should be considered in the selection of an
appropriate safety measure: potential for
improving
the
existing
control,
costeffectiveness, technical feasibility, acceptability,
and reliability of the measure in relation to the
local cultural and behavioral habits.
4 Conclusions and Outlook
Direct usage of raw wastewater leads to health
risks for farmers, crop handlers, and livestock. The
risks can be minimized if treated wastewater is
used for irrigation instead of raw sewage. In line
with the recommendation that WHO guidelines
need to be adapted to the specific conditions at the
respective site of wastewater irrigation (Carr
2005). From this study, it emerges that the use of
filters as a preliminary treatment measure and other
locally available cost-effective solutions for treating wastewater is highly recommended. The use of
personal protective equipment as a safety measure
should be made mandatory for farmers working
with wastewater. A good understanding of irrigation methods among farmers will lower health
risks and ensure product quality and safety. Feasible control measures for mitigating risks associated with wastewater farming observed in the
study area were the storage of irrigation water prior
to application on fields, screening, filtration, and
stopping irrigation (allowing pathogens to die off)
before harvesting. Some measures for postharvested produce include washing of produce in
freshwater before selling at the market and ensuring hygienic cooking practices. There is a strong
need for awareness, workshops, and training for
farmers and other stakeholders regarding the
adverse effects of untreated wastewater use for
irrigation on the one hand and safe practices of
wastewater use on the other hand.
There is a need to carry out many more epidemiological studies to better understand the
health implications of the wastewater irrigation
practice. Studies need to be conducted keeping in
mind the role of medical waste and its impact on
wastewater quality and more scientific data
should be gathered focusing on the microbiological, chemical, and toxicological parameters
of wastewater. A health impact assessment study
on consumer health after consumption of
wastewater-irrigated crops is also needed.
Wastewater use, when adopted with best management practices, has huge potential to benefit
farmers, improve public health by eliminating
unsafe waste disposal, and enrich soil nutrient
content. It is recommended to engage all stakeholders, from policymakers to sanitation experts,
agriculture experts, health departments, and civil
society organizations, to provide a culture
of better understanding of wastewater use in
a participatory approach, which had been successfully applied in the area before (Halkatti et al.
2016).
54
G. Ramakrishna and M. Hanisch