quantifying the probability of occurrence based
on opinion poll and secondary data. Then, the
potential risk areas were shortlisted considering
medical waste, pesticides, weedicides, mosquitoes, flies breeding, etc. Based on the obtained
results, an investigation was initiated, followed
by a root-cause analysis (RCA).
Root Cause Analysis (RCA)
In this study, potential hazards were identified
through investigation and probable root causes
were further assessed. A comparative account
between reference, test, and control was expected
to reveal the magnitude of deviation (if any), and
further associated risks were estimated. Data
verification was conducted by visiting, interviewing, and verifying documents at hospitals,
primary health centers, the sewage treatment
plant, local bodies, and the revenue office. Some
of the root causes identified were poor sanitation,
exposure to sewage, infrastructural issues,
chemical exposure, etc. Based on these findings
and considering existing control measures, mitigation measures were recommended for the safe
use of wastewater in agriculture.
2.2.3 Identification of Existing Control
Measures
and Documentation of Best
Practices
Agricultural workers and their families, crop
handlers, consumers, and those living in areas
irrigated with wastewater are considered as the
exposure groups for wastewater (Pescod 1992).
These groups are exposed to wastewater during
farming practices while selling produce in markets and during consumption. There are some
minimal and cost-effective on-farm treatment
methods like the low cost drip irrigation systems
using suitable local materials that could reduce
pathogen load and minimize health risks (WHO
nd). The existing control measures to mitigate the
risks associated with wastewater use were identified through extensive field inspections, surveys, and interviews with the farmers,
consumers, related government officials, and
other stakeholders.
The best practices were documented through
literature review and through extensive field
surveys. From the perspective of the health risk
mitigation, for each of the above-mentioned
exposure groups and risk factors, practical multicarrier control approaches as relevant and
elaborated in the World Health Organization
(WHO) Sanitation Safety Plan module were
explored (WHO 2016).
3 Results and Discussions
3.1 Opinion Poll Results
During the event site and control site surveys,
almost 25 opinion polls were collected (Fig. 4) in
the identified 27 risk areas. Here, opinions are
represented as positive and negative for the given
questions. A positive opinion means the satisfaction level is high and the identified area is in
good condition/status. The negative opinion is
one, where the satisfaction level is low, and the
identified area is in bad condition/status.
The findings of the event site- wastewater
(WW) irrigation, survey is as shown in the below
Fig. 4. The areas like nutrient load, product
yield, wastewater availability and income
through wastewater irrigation have received
positive opinions. These results are attributed to
the fertigation (fertilization and irrigation) nature
of wastewater. Wastewater is an inevitable
option for farmers for irrigation due to water
scarcity in the study area. Also, the rich nutrient
content of wastewater will lead to increased yield
and thereby increased income to the farmers.
However, the areas like weed menace, sewage
sickness, mosquitoes and flies breeding and
overall health impact have received negative
opinions. This is due to many uncontrollable
factors in wastewater like nutrient content.
Unlike the chemical fertilizers, where the nutrient
application is as per crop requirement, the
wastewater nutrient content is unknown and
hence, the application will lead to excess or
deficit of one or major nutrients. This in turn will
lead to the growth of unwanted plants like weeds,
long term continuous application will affect the
soil properties. The organic matter content of
wastewater will give rise to mosquitoes breeding.
46
G. Ramakrishna and M. Hanisch
on opinion poll and secondary data. Then, the
potential risk areas were shortlisted considering
medical waste, pesticides, weedicides, mosquitoes, flies breeding, etc. Based on the obtained
results, an investigation was initiated, followed
by a root-cause analysis (RCA).
Root Cause Analysis (RCA)
In this study, potential hazards were identified
through investigation and probable root causes
were further assessed. A comparative account
between reference, test, and control was expected
to reveal the magnitude of deviation (if any), and
further associated risks were estimated. Data
verification was conducted by visiting, interviewing, and verifying documents at hospitals,
primary health centers, the sewage treatment
plant, local bodies, and the revenue office. Some
of the root causes identified were poor sanitation,
exposure to sewage, infrastructural issues,
chemical exposure, etc. Based on these findings
and considering existing control measures, mitigation measures were recommended for the safe
use of wastewater in agriculture.
2.2.3 Identification of Existing Control
Measures
and Documentation of Best
Practices
Agricultural workers and their families, crop
handlers, consumers, and those living in areas
irrigated with wastewater are considered as the
exposure groups for wastewater (Pescod 1992).
These groups are exposed to wastewater during
farming practices while selling produce in markets and during consumption. There are some
minimal and cost-effective on-farm treatment
methods like the low cost drip irrigation systems
using suitable local materials that could reduce
pathogen load and minimize health risks (WHO
nd). The existing control measures to mitigate the
risks associated with wastewater use were identified through extensive field inspections, surveys, and interviews with the farmers,
consumers, related government officials, and
other stakeholders.
The best practices were documented through
literature review and through extensive field
surveys. From the perspective of the health risk
mitigation, for each of the above-mentioned
exposure groups and risk factors, practical multicarrier control approaches as relevant and
elaborated in the World Health Organization
(WHO) Sanitation Safety Plan module were
explored (WHO 2016).
3 Results and Discussions
3.1 Opinion Poll Results
During the event site and control site surveys,
almost 25 opinion polls were collected (Fig. 4) in
the identified 27 risk areas. Here, opinions are
represented as positive and negative for the given
questions. A positive opinion means the satisfaction level is high and the identified area is in
good condition/status. The negative opinion is
one, where the satisfaction level is low, and the
identified area is in bad condition/status.
The findings of the event site- wastewater
(WW) irrigation, survey is as shown in the below
Fig. 4. The areas like nutrient load, product
yield, wastewater availability and income
through wastewater irrigation have received
positive opinions. These results are attributed to
the fertigation (fertilization and irrigation) nature
of wastewater. Wastewater is an inevitable
option for farmers for irrigation due to water
scarcity in the study area. Also, the rich nutrient
content of wastewater will lead to increased yield
and thereby increased income to the farmers.
However, the areas like weed menace, sewage
sickness, mosquitoes and flies breeding and
overall health impact have received negative
opinions. This is due to many uncontrollable
factors in wastewater like nutrient content.
Unlike the chemical fertilizers, where the nutrient
application is as per crop requirement, the
wastewater nutrient content is unknown and
hence, the application will lead to excess or
deficit of one or major nutrients. This in turn will
lead to the growth of unwanted plants like weeds,
long term continuous application will affect the
soil properties. The organic matter content of
wastewater will give rise to mosquitoes breeding.
46
G. Ramakrishna and M. Hanisch