they, therefore, did not need to wait for the rains,
unlike in the rain-fed situation.
Control site: Kamalapur, Dharwad district,
Karnataka
Freshwater villages identified in Dharwad were
Kamalapur and Malapura as these villages are
close to the identified wastewater villages.
Kamalapur is a small village/hamlet in Dharwad
Taluk in Dharwad District of Karnataka State,
India. It comes under the village council of
Kamalapur Panchayath (Sindhindia nd). It is
located 1 km north from district headquarters in
Dharwad and 459 km from the state capital of
Bangalore. Kamalapur is surrounded by Hubli
Taluk (a Taluk is an administrative district for
taxation purposes, typically comprising a number
of villages), Haliyal Taluk, Kalghatgi Taluk, and
Kundgol Taluk. The total geographical area of the
village is 684.45 ha. Dharwad, Hubli, SaundattiYellamma, and Navalgund are the closest nearby
urban areas. Local health care centers, and private
and Government hospitals are present in
Kamalapur. Table 1 summarizes the number of
farmers and cultivable land area in Kamalapur.
Agriculture in Kamalapur is mainly rain-fed
and farmers with borewells apply freshwater
irrigation. As there is no wastewater source in
Kamalapur, the entire agricultural land is
freshwater-irrigated. The quality of freshwater is
good and farmers get an optimum and continuous supply. The main crops grown are groundnut, soybean, potato, green gram, Bengal gram,
wheat, cotton, peas, and green chili. The crops
grown for fodder are jowar, maize, and the dried
straw of groundnut and soybean. Medium- and
small-scale farms mostly follow furrow and ridge
irrigation (30%). However, the sprinkler system
is very common amongst large-scale farms
(40%).
2.2.2 Qualitative Assessment of Health
Risks Associated
with Wastewater Use
Based on the pre-feasibility study conducted in
the Hubli–Dharwad area, a further study was
proposed to assess the health risks associated
with wastewater use at the two identified sites
(impact of wastewater irrigation on farmers’
health). The study was initiated by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), and
conducted in collaboration with CDD-BORDA
(Bremen Overseas Research and Development
Association). The study aimed to quantify the
health impacts in this village through a survey
and comparison with the results for the neighboring control village, Kamalapur. The selected
control site was expected to nullify the background effects to obtain a clear investigation
result after root-cause analysis.
The study comprised four important steps—
screening, scoping, risk assessment, and recommendation. An overview of the methodology is
as given in Fig. 3.
Screening
Screening is an initiation of the study that
involves communication needs assessment,
identification of stakeholders, question sets, desk
study based on secondary data, and a prefeasibility study. The screening involved selecting stakeholders and communication need
assessment, closed-ended questions interview,
and finally the pre-feasibility study report review.
Identifying the questions to be asked in the
assessment process was the most important part
of the screening process, which covered scope,
range, duration, variation, and outcomes of
existing practices directly or indirectly related to
wastewater use in irrigation. The FGD results
and personal interviews were taken into consideration. For screening and scoping, a gradientbased questionnaire was used to outline the
possible hazards. Around 25 respondents from
each of the control (Kamalapura) and event
(Govankoppa) sites were interviewed. A total of
Table 1 Land holdings details of Kamalapur village,
Dharwad (Source Own elaboration based on oral communication by Krishi Vignyana Kendra, KVK)
Number of
farmers
Cultivable land
(ha)
Marginal
farmers
193
109.72
Small farmers
158
215.38
Big farmers
119
183.49
44
G. Ramakrishna and M. Hanisch
unlike in the rain-fed situation.
Control site: Kamalapur, Dharwad district,
Karnataka
Freshwater villages identified in Dharwad were
Kamalapur and Malapura as these villages are
close to the identified wastewater villages.
Kamalapur is a small village/hamlet in Dharwad
Taluk in Dharwad District of Karnataka State,
India. It comes under the village council of
Kamalapur Panchayath (Sindhindia nd). It is
located 1 km north from district headquarters in
Dharwad and 459 km from the state capital of
Bangalore. Kamalapur is surrounded by Hubli
Taluk (a Taluk is an administrative district for
taxation purposes, typically comprising a number
of villages), Haliyal Taluk, Kalghatgi Taluk, and
Kundgol Taluk. The total geographical area of the
village is 684.45 ha. Dharwad, Hubli, SaundattiYellamma, and Navalgund are the closest nearby
urban areas. Local health care centers, and private
and Government hospitals are present in
Kamalapur. Table 1 summarizes the number of
farmers and cultivable land area in Kamalapur.
Agriculture in Kamalapur is mainly rain-fed
and farmers with borewells apply freshwater
irrigation. As there is no wastewater source in
Kamalapur, the entire agricultural land is
freshwater-irrigated. The quality of freshwater is
good and farmers get an optimum and continuous supply. The main crops grown are groundnut, soybean, potato, green gram, Bengal gram,
wheat, cotton, peas, and green chili. The crops
grown for fodder are jowar, maize, and the dried
straw of groundnut and soybean. Medium- and
small-scale farms mostly follow furrow and ridge
irrigation (30%). However, the sprinkler system
is very common amongst large-scale farms
(40%).
2.2.2 Qualitative Assessment of Health
Risks Associated
with Wastewater Use
Based on the pre-feasibility study conducted in
the Hubli–Dharwad area, a further study was
proposed to assess the health risks associated
with wastewater use at the two identified sites
(impact of wastewater irrigation on farmers’
health). The study was initiated by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), and
conducted in collaboration with CDD-BORDA
(Bremen Overseas Research and Development
Association). The study aimed to quantify the
health impacts in this village through a survey
and comparison with the results for the neighboring control village, Kamalapur. The selected
control site was expected to nullify the background effects to obtain a clear investigation
result after root-cause analysis.
The study comprised four important steps—
screening, scoping, risk assessment, and recommendation. An overview of the methodology is
as given in Fig. 3.
Screening
Screening is an initiation of the study that
involves communication needs assessment,
identification of stakeholders, question sets, desk
study based on secondary data, and a prefeasibility study. The screening involved selecting stakeholders and communication need
assessment, closed-ended questions interview,
and finally the pre-feasibility study report review.
Identifying the questions to be asked in the
assessment process was the most important part
of the screening process, which covered scope,
range, duration, variation, and outcomes of
existing practices directly or indirectly related to
wastewater use in irrigation. The FGD results
and personal interviews were taken into consideration. For screening and scoping, a gradientbased questionnaire was used to outline the
possible hazards. Around 25 respondents from
each of the control (Kamalapura) and event
(Govankoppa) sites were interviewed. A total of
Table 1 Land holdings details of Kamalapur village,
Dharwad (Source Own elaboration based on oral communication by Krishi Vignyana Kendra, KVK)
Number of
farmers
Cultivable land
(ha)
Marginal
farmers
193
109.72
Small farmers
158
215.38
Big farmers
119
183.49
44
G. Ramakrishna and M. Hanisch