20
exposures causing associated risks can also via environmental pathways result in
the exposure of the public (NAP 2011; Keith et al. 2013).
In principle, persons may be mainly affected by the protracted exposure to radon
decay products and by the exposure to external penetrating radiation.
Internal exposure to radioactive materials during uranium mining and processing
occurs through inhalation and ingestion or through a cut in the skin. On the other
hand, external radiation exposure (e.g., exposure to gamma photons and to the
higher energy of beta radiation) can also contribute to a health risk.
It is obvious that only radionuclides present potential adverse human health
effects. There are two other notable inhalation risks that are associated with silica
dust and diesel exhaust. It has been recognized that cigarette smoking poses additional risk in absolute terms and there is potential for increased disease, including
combined effects that are more than just additives. It is not easy to find out how
these individual components affect the health of miners, and a question may arise
about their synergic consequences.
Practically any applications of radiation or nuclear technologies result in most
cases in some additional exposure of workers, members of the public and, in medical applications, also of patients. This exposure is considered undesirable, but one
cannot escape it completely, although by and large such exposure is well below the
dose limits or reference levels set by respective regulatory authorities (Sabol and
Šesták 2017). This is the case in normal conditions when everything goes in accordance with the relevant safety regulations. Only in a rare situation the exposure may
be higher, but this occurs only in the case of an incident or accident.
At lower radiation levels, only stochastic biological effects can be expected.
These effects may occur after some time following the exposure in the form of cancer or genetic abnormalities. The probability of their appearance is directly proportional to the exposure in terms of the effective dose.
Fig. 17 The countries holding the world’s nuclear arsenal (estimated warheads as of 2017)
J. Sabol
exposures causing associated risks can also via environmental pathways result in
the exposure of the public (NAP 2011; Keith et al. 2013).
In principle, persons may be mainly affected by the protracted exposure to radon
decay products and by the exposure to external penetrating radiation.
Internal exposure to radioactive materials during uranium mining and processing
occurs through inhalation and ingestion or through a cut in the skin. On the other
hand, external radiation exposure (e.g., exposure to gamma photons and to the
higher energy of beta radiation) can also contribute to a health risk.
It is obvious that only radionuclides present potential adverse human health
effects. There are two other notable inhalation risks that are associated with silica
dust and diesel exhaust. It has been recognized that cigarette smoking poses additional risk in absolute terms and there is potential for increased disease, including
combined effects that are more than just additives. It is not easy to find out how
these individual components affect the health of miners, and a question may arise
about their synergic consequences.
Practically any applications of radiation or nuclear technologies result in most
cases in some additional exposure of workers, members of the public and, in medical applications, also of patients. This exposure is considered undesirable, but one
cannot escape it completely, although by and large such exposure is well below the
dose limits or reference levels set by respective regulatory authorities (Sabol and
Šesták 2017). This is the case in normal conditions when everything goes in accordance with the relevant safety regulations. Only in a rare situation the exposure may
be higher, but this occurs only in the case of an incident or accident.
At lower radiation levels, only stochastic biological effects can be expected.
These effects may occur after some time following the exposure in the form of cancer or genetic abnormalities. The probability of their appearance is directly proportional to the exposure in terms of the effective dose.
Fig. 17 The countries holding the world’s nuclear arsenal (estimated warheads as of 2017)
J. Sabol