19
The possible acquisition of nuclear weapons by the so-called rogue states presents a major challenge to the NPT regime. In this context, it is advisable to pay
attention to the two most probable scenarios under which a conflict between the
USA, or the US-led coalition, and some from troubled states and a confrontation of
two actors with less nuclear potential. In a similar way, Russia may also be potentially involved in a similar nuclear conflict.
It appears that nuclear deterrence is among the most powerful tool against
spreading nuclear weapons. There may be some countries interested in acquiring
such weapons, but they are kept within some parameters, and they should be careful
not to cross a certain line which would endanger the interests of the superpowers so
that these powers would be ready to launch an armed conflict. So far, it is not probable that any terrorist organizations could obtain nuclear weapons since at present
they would not be able to overcome technical difficulties and obstacles, including
security measures aimed at safeguarding the nuclear arsenal. For terrorist attacks,
terrorists will continue using rather different, cheap and sufficiently effective
methods.
Although, in general it is felt that because of the efficient proliferation of nuclear
material and other mechanisms adopted to minimize the use of nuclear weapons,
there are some much less optimistic opinions. Even some high-ranking officials
engaged in the field are rather sceptical about the efficiency of the present measures
to prevent a nuclear conflict. For example, the executive director of the International
Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (ICAN) has described the threat to humanity posed by nuclear weapons as “greater today than at the end of the Cold War”
(Orphanides 2017). Some scientists and researchers are afraid that nuclear weapons
systems could be vulnerable to cyberattack or that large-scale cyberattacks at particularly tense periods might result in escalation to a nuclear response. It may happen that a cyberattack could be carried out by a third party but attributed to the
wrong state, leading to the initiation of a nuclear conflict.
There are currently nine states which possess nuclear weapons with an estimated
total of around 15,000 missiles. Among those nuclear weapon countries belong the
USA, Russia, the UK, France, China, India, Pakistan, Israel and North Korea. The
biggest players in this group of countries are the USA and Russia, who hold by far
the biggest stockpiles, estimated to be about 7000 warheads each (Fig. 17) (Ross
2016; Armstrong 2018).
3 Quantification of Uranium-Related Exposure
3.1 Basic Aspects
Uranium mining, milling and further processing involve some operations which
contribute to potential adverse human health risks. This hazard is typically most
pertinent to individuals occupationally exposed in mining industry; however, some
Uranium in the Beginning of the Nuclear Age: Reflections on the Historical Role…
The possible acquisition of nuclear weapons by the so-called rogue states presents a major challenge to the NPT regime. In this context, it is advisable to pay
attention to the two most probable scenarios under which a conflict between the
USA, or the US-led coalition, and some from troubled states and a confrontation of
two actors with less nuclear potential. In a similar way, Russia may also be potentially involved in a similar nuclear conflict.
It appears that nuclear deterrence is among the most powerful tool against
spreading nuclear weapons. There may be some countries interested in acquiring
such weapons, but they are kept within some parameters, and they should be careful
not to cross a certain line which would endanger the interests of the superpowers so
that these powers would be ready to launch an armed conflict. So far, it is not probable that any terrorist organizations could obtain nuclear weapons since at present
they would not be able to overcome technical difficulties and obstacles, including
security measures aimed at safeguarding the nuclear arsenal. For terrorist attacks,
terrorists will continue using rather different, cheap and sufficiently effective
methods.
Although, in general it is felt that because of the efficient proliferation of nuclear
material and other mechanisms adopted to minimize the use of nuclear weapons,
there are some much less optimistic opinions. Even some high-ranking officials
engaged in the field are rather sceptical about the efficiency of the present measures
to prevent a nuclear conflict. For example, the executive director of the International
Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (ICAN) has described the threat to humanity posed by nuclear weapons as “greater today than at the end of the Cold War”
(Orphanides 2017). Some scientists and researchers are afraid that nuclear weapons
systems could be vulnerable to cyberattack or that large-scale cyberattacks at particularly tense periods might result in escalation to a nuclear response. It may happen that a cyberattack could be carried out by a third party but attributed to the
wrong state, leading to the initiation of a nuclear conflict.
There are currently nine states which possess nuclear weapons with an estimated
total of around 15,000 missiles. Among those nuclear weapon countries belong the
USA, Russia, the UK, France, China, India, Pakistan, Israel and North Korea. The
biggest players in this group of countries are the USA and Russia, who hold by far
the biggest stockpiles, estimated to be about 7000 warheads each (Fig. 17) (Ross
2016; Armstrong 2018).
3 Quantification of Uranium-Related Exposure
3.1 Basic Aspects
Uranium mining, milling and further processing involve some operations which
contribute to potential adverse human health risks. This hazard is typically most
pertinent to individuals occupationally exposed in mining industry; however, some
Uranium in the Beginning of the Nuclear Age: Reflections on the Historical Role…