6
M. Al-Sahari et al.
and thus represents a health risk for the animal and human. Besides, these organisms
might survive during the composting process. Salemdeeb et al. (2017) compared
four food waste disposal technologies in terms of 14 different environmental and
health impacts. The study revealed that converting municipal food wastes into pig
feed would have a lower environmental and health impacts than processing waste by
composting or anaerobic digestion.
1.4 Harmful Algae Blooms (HABs) in Freshwater
A harmful algae bloom (HABs) is one of the natural phenomena which take place as a
response for the contamination of the freshwater system with the nutrients (Davidson
et al. 2016). HABs have been reported in several historical books and documents.
However, in the recent years, HABs phenomenon has seen a significant spread due to
the increase of human activities as the agriculture process, industrial systems, and the
sewage disposal system into the natural water systems which led to the accumulation
of nutrients in terms of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) and contribute effectively
in the HABs growth (Bae and Seo 2018). Moreover, the continuous changing of
climate occupies a critical position in term of harmful algae proliferation where
there are several methods to manage human activities, but climate changes could not
be controlled which made the prediction of prevalence harmful algae the best option
for the world (Wells et al. 2015; Chapra et al. 2017).
Three major strategies have been reported in the literature to treat or minimize
HABs, include prevention (Kudela et al. 2015; Schindler et al. 2016; McPartlin et al.
2017; Jung et al. 2017; Lee and Lee 2018) mitigation (Paerl et al. 2016, 2018) and
control (Hamilton et al. 2016; Noyma et al. 2016). The prevention strategy is used to
manage and maintain the natural sources of water before the appearance and spread
of HABs. The mitigation strategy is used, if the presence of the prevention and control
strategies does not exist. While the control strategy is used in terms of chemical and
biological as well as the flocculants which represent the most common and useful
strategy around the world for reducing HABs (Fig. 1.1).
HABs represent dangerous phenomenon impacts on the environment by increasing the pollution level, change the quality of natural water sources, and establish
a suitable environment which stimulates pathogenic bacteria (Wolf and Klaiber
2017). There are several syndromes poisoning caused by HABs, each of these syndromes has its own characteristics and impacts against aquatic organisms and humans
(Grattan et al. 2016). HABs are algae organisms which have high potential to produce several toxins such as hepatoxins, and neurotoxins. The released toxins cause,
diarrhea, vomiting, eye irritation, skin rashes, and respiratory symptoms (Villacorte
et al. 2015). These symptoms are used as an indication for the infections since there
are no specific diagnostic procedures for these toxins in human blood (Villacorte
et al. 2015). HABs phenomenon in the water system in Malaysia has not investigated extensively. However, the algae growth in the natural water systems can be
M. Al-Sahari et al.
and thus represents a health risk for the animal and human. Besides, these organisms
might survive during the composting process. Salemdeeb et al. (2017) compared
four food waste disposal technologies in terms of 14 different environmental and
health impacts. The study revealed that converting municipal food wastes into pig
feed would have a lower environmental and health impacts than processing waste by
composting or anaerobic digestion.
1.4 Harmful Algae Blooms (HABs) in Freshwater
A harmful algae bloom (HABs) is one of the natural phenomena which take place as a
response for the contamination of the freshwater system with the nutrients (Davidson
et al. 2016). HABs have been reported in several historical books and documents.
However, in the recent years, HABs phenomenon has seen a significant spread due to
the increase of human activities as the agriculture process, industrial systems, and the
sewage disposal system into the natural water systems which led to the accumulation
of nutrients in terms of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) and contribute effectively
in the HABs growth (Bae and Seo 2018). Moreover, the continuous changing of
climate occupies a critical position in term of harmful algae proliferation where
there are several methods to manage human activities, but climate changes could not
be controlled which made the prediction of prevalence harmful algae the best option
for the world (Wells et al. 2015; Chapra et al. 2017).
Three major strategies have been reported in the literature to treat or minimize
HABs, include prevention (Kudela et al. 2015; Schindler et al. 2016; McPartlin et al.
2017; Jung et al. 2017; Lee and Lee 2018) mitigation (Paerl et al. 2016, 2018) and
control (Hamilton et al. 2016; Noyma et al. 2016). The prevention strategy is used to
manage and maintain the natural sources of water before the appearance and spread
of HABs. The mitigation strategy is used, if the presence of the prevention and control
strategies does not exist. While the control strategy is used in terms of chemical and
biological as well as the flocculants which represent the most common and useful
strategy around the world for reducing HABs (Fig. 1.1).
HABs represent dangerous phenomenon impacts on the environment by increasing the pollution level, change the quality of natural water sources, and establish
a suitable environment which stimulates pathogenic bacteria (Wolf and Klaiber
2017). There are several syndromes poisoning caused by HABs, each of these syndromes has its own characteristics and impacts against aquatic organisms and humans
(Grattan et al. 2016). HABs are algae organisms which have high potential to produce several toxins such as hepatoxins, and neurotoxins. The released toxins cause,
diarrhea, vomiting, eye irritation, skin rashes, and respiratory symptoms (Villacorte
et al. 2015). These symptoms are used as an indication for the infections since there
are no specific diagnostic procedures for these toxins in human blood (Villacorte
et al. 2015). HABs phenomenon in the water system in Malaysia has not investigated extensively. However, the algae growth in the natural water systems can be