Colombia, and Spain. The presence of pyrethroids in breast milk samples is an
alarming evidence of the harmful effects of pyrethroids to human health. Newborn
children are the most affected by the exposure to pyrethroids due to the high dosage/
body weight ratio and developing immunological system.
4 Pyrethroids and Human Health
Human health effects caused by pyrethroids can be classified as local or systemic,
depending on the route of contamination and levels of exposure. Acute symptoms
may include irritation of the respiratory tract (coughing and lung irritation due to
inhalation of dust or aerosol particles), vertigo and headaches, nausea and vomiting,
eye irritation and inflammation, and paresthesia. Studies on chronic symptoms are
still very limited and oftentimes controversial [1, 14].
Epidemiological studies in men showed the impacts in male fertility related to
quality the DNA of sperm and reproductive hormones. Ji et al. [23] analyzed urine
and semen samples of 240 males and observed a correlation between 3-BPA
metabolite levels, low concentration of sperm, and DNA damage. Toshima et al.
[24] inspected urine and sperm samples of 42 males, finding a correlation between
the presence of the 3-BPA metabolite and low sperm mobility. Jurewicz et al. [25]
found a positive association between cis-DCCA and DNA damage, as well as a
correlation between 3-BPA levels and sperm DNA damage in urine and semen
samples of 286 males.
In women, epidemiological studies analyzed pyrethroid exposure during pregnancy. Shelton et al. [26] correlated exposure to pyrethroids during pregnancy and
neurobehavioral disorders, such as autism spectrum disorders in children. Reardon
et al. [27] suggested there could be an association between respiratory problems in
infants and exposure of mothers to pyrethroids during pregnancy.
Research on the correlation between pyrethroid exposure and cancer are still in its
infancy, and current data is still inconclusive. Nonetheless, the US EPA classified
permethrin, a common insecticide and insect repellent, also used to treat lice, as
“probably cancerogenic to humans” when ingested, and the International Agency for
Research on Cancer (IARC) recognized potential cancerogenic risks, including
permethrin, in a high-priority review list for the 2015–2019 review period (https://
monographs.iarc.fr/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/14-002.pdf. Accessed 3 Mar 2019).
5 Pyrethroid Risk Assessment
The presence of pyrethroid residues on food products is a substantial risk to human
health. Therefore, the levels of pesticide residues are established according to
parameters such as the MRL, maximum residue limit; the ADI, acceptable daily
intake; and the ARfD, acute reference dose. Those limits are determined by national
and international regulatory agencies and vary according to those agencies. The
Risk Assessment of Human Exposure to Pyrethroids Through Food
251
alarming evidence of the harmful effects of pyrethroids to human health. Newborn
children are the most affected by the exposure to pyrethroids due to the high dosage/
body weight ratio and developing immunological system.
4 Pyrethroids and Human Health
Human health effects caused by pyrethroids can be classified as local or systemic,
depending on the route of contamination and levels of exposure. Acute symptoms
may include irritation of the respiratory tract (coughing and lung irritation due to
inhalation of dust or aerosol particles), vertigo and headaches, nausea and vomiting,
eye irritation and inflammation, and paresthesia. Studies on chronic symptoms are
still very limited and oftentimes controversial [1, 14].
Epidemiological studies in men showed the impacts in male fertility related to
quality the DNA of sperm and reproductive hormones. Ji et al. [23] analyzed urine
and semen samples of 240 males and observed a correlation between 3-BPA
metabolite levels, low concentration of sperm, and DNA damage. Toshima et al.
[24] inspected urine and sperm samples of 42 males, finding a correlation between
the presence of the 3-BPA metabolite and low sperm mobility. Jurewicz et al. [25]
found a positive association between cis-DCCA and DNA damage, as well as a
correlation between 3-BPA levels and sperm DNA damage in urine and semen
samples of 286 males.
In women, epidemiological studies analyzed pyrethroid exposure during pregnancy. Shelton et al. [26] correlated exposure to pyrethroids during pregnancy and
neurobehavioral disorders, such as autism spectrum disorders in children. Reardon
et al. [27] suggested there could be an association between respiratory problems in
infants and exposure of mothers to pyrethroids during pregnancy.
Research on the correlation between pyrethroid exposure and cancer are still in its
infancy, and current data is still inconclusive. Nonetheless, the US EPA classified
permethrin, a common insecticide and insect repellent, also used to treat lice, as
“probably cancerogenic to humans” when ingested, and the International Agency for
Research on Cancer (IARC) recognized potential cancerogenic risks, including
permethrin, in a high-priority review list for the 2015–2019 review period (https://
monographs.iarc.fr/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/14-002.pdf. Accessed 3 Mar 2019).
5 Pyrethroid Risk Assessment
The presence of pyrethroid residues on food products is a substantial risk to human
health. Therefore, the levels of pesticide residues are established according to
parameters such as the MRL, maximum residue limit; the ADI, acceptable daily
intake; and the ARfD, acute reference dose. Those limits are determined by national
and international regulatory agencies and vary according to those agencies. The
Risk Assessment of Human Exposure to Pyrethroids Through Food
251