Rice Production in Egypt: The Challenges of Climate Change …
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[4]. Climatic factors are key factors that are controlling crop production processes.
Solar radiation, rainfall and temperature fluctuations lead to water deficit, changing
in soil moisture content, flood, pest, and diseases outbreak that limit crop growth and
can account for 15–80% of the variation of inter-annual yield resources [35]. It has
already been a global consent that climate factors and their changes play an important
role in agriculture, particularly in grain production which is the main essential sector
for feeding a population over the world. Therefore, agricultural production is sensitive
to climate change, not only due to the direct impacts of changes in temperature and
precipitation but also due to changes in hydrological processes such as availability
of water resources and the demand for irrigation water. Agricultural irrigation has
an important role in the utilization of water resources as well as the distribution
of farmland [4]. Meanwhile, extreme climate events such as drought, flooding, or
drought immediately followed by flooding in recent years have led to severe negative
impacts on crop production [23].
It is well known from the rich literature of climate change and its impacts on grain
production, that there is growing evidence of crop yield response to current global
warming. Various approaches were used in such studies as using crop model to calculate the contribution of weather to grain yield, simulation, and empirical statistical
approach such as linear regression analysis that has been mostly used for calculating
the impact of climate factors on grain yield. It was reported that had the increased
temperature by 1–2 °C during the paddy earring stage, could have decreased the
paddy rice production by 10–20% [36]. It is reported that climate change implies
further pressure on the world’s food supply system. It affects food production directly
through changes in agro-ecological conditions which affects the overall food supply.
Extensive research shows that high temperatures, variable rainfall, floods, droughts,
and cyclones may cause a large decrease in global food production, especially in
developing countries. For example, the increase in temperature reduces the phenological phases of crops (i.e. planting, flowering, and harvesting) and affects plant
growth and development [37].
Several researchers have studied the probable impact of climate change on rice
production and conducted that it is pivotal to determine how climate change affects
rice production and water use efficiency to prepare plans and policies for adapting
the agricultural system versus the changing climate [37]. Chen et al. [23] indicated
a decreased rice yields associated with global warming in Philippines. They also
referred that in other Asian countries, long-term field experiments have also conducted declining or stagnating yields in rice-based cropping systems. However, the
impacts of climate change on the future rice production is still under debate in the
three highest producing countries; China, India, and Indonesia. This is attributed
to the counterbalance between the beneficial effects of increasing atmospheric CO 2
concentration and the exacerbation of abiotic stresses on crop growth, such as heat,
drought, and salinity. The available estimations are discordant and vary between an
increase of 10–15% in 2020 to 7–10% yield losses per every 1 °C increase in air
temperature. With the prominent role of rice as a staple food for humans and the
necessity of doubling crop production by 2050 to meet the proposed demand of
the global population, the efforts are still required to better understand the current
305
[4]. Climatic factors are key factors that are controlling crop production processes.
Solar radiation, rainfall and temperature fluctuations lead to water deficit, changing
in soil moisture content, flood, pest, and diseases outbreak that limit crop growth and
can account for 15–80% of the variation of inter-annual yield resources [35]. It has
already been a global consent that climate factors and their changes play an important
role in agriculture, particularly in grain production which is the main essential sector
for feeding a population over the world. Therefore, agricultural production is sensitive
to climate change, not only due to the direct impacts of changes in temperature and
precipitation but also due to changes in hydrological processes such as availability
of water resources and the demand for irrigation water. Agricultural irrigation has
an important role in the utilization of water resources as well as the distribution
of farmland [4]. Meanwhile, extreme climate events such as drought, flooding, or
drought immediately followed by flooding in recent years have led to severe negative
impacts on crop production [23].
It is well known from the rich literature of climate change and its impacts on grain
production, that there is growing evidence of crop yield response to current global
warming. Various approaches were used in such studies as using crop model to calculate the contribution of weather to grain yield, simulation, and empirical statistical
approach such as linear regression analysis that has been mostly used for calculating
the impact of climate factors on grain yield. It was reported that had the increased
temperature by 1–2 °C during the paddy earring stage, could have decreased the
paddy rice production by 10–20% [36]. It is reported that climate change implies
further pressure on the world’s food supply system. It affects food production directly
through changes in agro-ecological conditions which affects the overall food supply.
Extensive research shows that high temperatures, variable rainfall, floods, droughts,
and cyclones may cause a large decrease in global food production, especially in
developing countries. For example, the increase in temperature reduces the phenological phases of crops (i.e. planting, flowering, and harvesting) and affects plant
growth and development [37].
Several researchers have studied the probable impact of climate change on rice
production and conducted that it is pivotal to determine how climate change affects
rice production and water use efficiency to prepare plans and policies for adapting
the agricultural system versus the changing climate [37]. Chen et al. [23] indicated
a decreased rice yields associated with global warming in Philippines. They also
referred that in other Asian countries, long-term field experiments have also conducted declining or stagnating yields in rice-based cropping systems. However, the
impacts of climate change on the future rice production is still under debate in the
three highest producing countries; China, India, and Indonesia. This is attributed
to the counterbalance between the beneficial effects of increasing atmospheric CO 2
concentration and the exacerbation of abiotic stresses on crop growth, such as heat,
drought, and salinity. The available estimations are discordant and vary between an
increase of 10–15% in 2020 to 7–10% yield losses per every 1 °C increase in air
temperature. With the prominent role of rice as a staple food for humans and the
necessity of doubling crop production by 2050 to meet the proposed demand of
the global population, the efforts are still required to better understand the current