In surface waters of the Kan, Darband, Farahzadi, and Karaj rivers in Tehran
(Iran), the presence of ibuprofen (IBU), naproxen (NPX), diclofenac (DIC), and
indomethacin (IDM) was determined by solid-phase extraction followed by LC-MS/
MS detecting the presence of these NSAIDs in low concentrations; the maximum
detected were IBU 0.31 ng/L, NPX 0.041 ng/L, DIC 0.025 ng/L, and IDM 0.041 ng/
L (see Table 3). Except for DIC that was found only in one river, the other antiinflammatories were detected in all the rivers. Thus, the authors conclude that the
NSAIDs studied are ubiquitously present in the analyzed aquatic environment [37].
In another investigation, diclofenac concentrations were analyzed by LC-MS/MS
in the Elbe, Saale, and Leine rivers in Northern Germany, detecting levels of
370, 160, and 153 ng/L, respectively. The highest concentrations were found
downstream compared to the concentrations measured upstream [5].
In the Edo river basin in Japan, Nishi et al. [28] determined the concentrations of
seven NSAIDs finding values of 0.5 ng/L for salicylic acid, ibuprofen 1 ng/L,
felbinac 10 ng/L, naproxen 2 ng/L, mefenamic acid 2 ng/L, ketoprofen 1 ng/L,
and diclofenac 2 ng/L, while the presence of meclofenamic acid in the studied
samples was undetectable (see Table 3). The authors suggested that COX inhibitory
activity by NSAIDs may be potentially toxic to aquatic organisms. Therefore, COX
inhibition assays may be useful for assessing the ecotoxicity of COX inhibitors.
The detection of four nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs was carried out in
Lake Päijänne and Vantaa River in Finland. The samples were analyzed by LC-MS/
MS. The concentrations of diclofenac, ibuprofen, ketoprofen, and naproxen in Lake
Päijänne ranged between 15–35, 13–31, 16–27, and 3.3–32 ng/L, respectively.
Similarly, the results found in the Vantaa River samples ranged from 15–65,
13–33, 16–31, to 3.3–6.4 ng/L. Lindholm-Lehto et al. [34] concluded that possibly
the environmental conditions and dilution of pharmaceutical products vary due to
different loads and along different types of water bodies.
For a decade (years 1997–2007), a monitoring program at four sampling sites
along the Rhine River in Europe showed concentrations with maximum levels of
900, 120, 210, and 25 ng/L of diclofenac, ibuprofen, indomethacin, and ketoprofen,
respectively . The authors noted that the contamination of the river by the pharmaceutical residues described during the decade of study was almost constant, so the
results of this research demonstrate that the control measures undertaken during this
period of time to reduce the discharge of pharmaceutical residues to the aquatic
environment did not result in a significant improvement in the quality of the
receiving waters. Consequently, more effective measures are necessary if it is
desired to significantly reduce contamination of the Rhine River with pharmaceutical
waste in the coming years [31].
A study conducted in South Africa on the Msunduzi River by Agunbiade and
Moodley [18] reported by means of LC-MS/MS the presence of NSAIDs in the
surface water of this river in concentrations of 91.3, 92.8, 102.7, and 100.8 μg/L for
ibuprofen, acetylsalicylic acid, ketoprofen, and diclofenac, respectively. Interestingly in this study, in addition to performing these NSAID determinations in surface
water, they also measured their levels in wastewater, finding that the wastewater
treatment process in the area did not significantly reduce these contaminants.
Worldwide Occurrence, Detection, and Fate of Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory. . .
65
(Iran), the presence of ibuprofen (IBU), naproxen (NPX), diclofenac (DIC), and
indomethacin (IDM) was determined by solid-phase extraction followed by LC-MS/
MS detecting the presence of these NSAIDs in low concentrations; the maximum
detected were IBU 0.31 ng/L, NPX 0.041 ng/L, DIC 0.025 ng/L, and IDM 0.041 ng/
L (see Table 3). Except for DIC that was found only in one river, the other antiinflammatories were detected in all the rivers. Thus, the authors conclude that the
NSAIDs studied are ubiquitously present in the analyzed aquatic environment [37].
In another investigation, diclofenac concentrations were analyzed by LC-MS/MS
in the Elbe, Saale, and Leine rivers in Northern Germany, detecting levels of
370, 160, and 153 ng/L, respectively. The highest concentrations were found
downstream compared to the concentrations measured upstream [5].
In the Edo river basin in Japan, Nishi et al. [28] determined the concentrations of
seven NSAIDs finding values of 0.5 ng/L for salicylic acid, ibuprofen 1 ng/L,
felbinac 10 ng/L, naproxen 2 ng/L, mefenamic acid 2 ng/L, ketoprofen 1 ng/L,
and diclofenac 2 ng/L, while the presence of meclofenamic acid in the studied
samples was undetectable (see Table 3). The authors suggested that COX inhibitory
activity by NSAIDs may be potentially toxic to aquatic organisms. Therefore, COX
inhibition assays may be useful for assessing the ecotoxicity of COX inhibitors.
The detection of four nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs was carried out in
Lake Päijänne and Vantaa River in Finland. The samples were analyzed by LC-MS/
MS. The concentrations of diclofenac, ibuprofen, ketoprofen, and naproxen in Lake
Päijänne ranged between 15–35, 13–31, 16–27, and 3.3–32 ng/L, respectively.
Similarly, the results found in the Vantaa River samples ranged from 15–65,
13–33, 16–31, to 3.3–6.4 ng/L. Lindholm-Lehto et al. [34] concluded that possibly
the environmental conditions and dilution of pharmaceutical products vary due to
different loads and along different types of water bodies.
For a decade (years 1997–2007), a monitoring program at four sampling sites
along the Rhine River in Europe showed concentrations with maximum levels of
900, 120, 210, and 25 ng/L of diclofenac, ibuprofen, indomethacin, and ketoprofen,
respectively . The authors noted that the contamination of the river by the pharmaceutical residues described during the decade of study was almost constant, so the
results of this research demonstrate that the control measures undertaken during this
period of time to reduce the discharge of pharmaceutical residues to the aquatic
environment did not result in a significant improvement in the quality of the
receiving waters. Consequently, more effective measures are necessary if it is
desired to significantly reduce contamination of the Rhine River with pharmaceutical
waste in the coming years [31].
A study conducted in South Africa on the Msunduzi River by Agunbiade and
Moodley [18] reported by means of LC-MS/MS the presence of NSAIDs in the
surface water of this river in concentrations of 91.3, 92.8, 102.7, and 100.8 μg/L for
ibuprofen, acetylsalicylic acid, ketoprofen, and diclofenac, respectively. Interestingly in this study, in addition to performing these NSAID determinations in surface
water, they also measured their levels in wastewater, finding that the wastewater
treatment process in the area did not significantly reduce these contaminants.
Worldwide Occurrence, Detection, and Fate of Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory. . .
65