Through LC-MS/MS, Hoshina et al. [38] determined the presence of NSAIDs in
Naruo-Shin River samples in Japan. The determination of NSAIDs in river water
samples was carried out using a molecularly imprinted restricted access polymer
(RAM-MIP) for flufenamic acid as a pretreatment column. The concentrations of
mefenamic acid, indomethacin and etodolac in the river water samples were determined to be 0.4, 0.7 and 0.3 ng/L, respectively, while ketoprofen was below the limit
of quantification.
In the city of New Delhi (India), a study was conducted to analyze the presence of
NSAIDs in the surface waters of the Yamuna River. The collected water samples
were quantified using a triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometer coupled with
ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography system (UHPLC), finding ibuprofen
concentrations of 1.09 Æ 1.05 and 2.19 Æ 4.40 μg/L of diclofenac. Additionally, they
revealed that, apart from their therapeutic use, the main source of ecological exposure could be due to the elimination of expired pharmaceutical products in landfills
[24]. Similarly, the presence of five NSAIDS (salicylic acid, ibuprofen, naproxen,
indomethacin and diclofenac) was investigated in river waters of the urban section of
the Pearl River in Guangzhou in southern China by liquid chromatography coupled
with a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer with electrospray ionization in negative
mode. All pharmaceutical products were detected at least once in the Pearl River.
Salicylic acid had the highest maximum concentration (6.7 μg/L) and average
concentration (109 ng/L). The second most abundant was ibuprofen with a maximum and average concentration of 288 and 78 ng/L respectively. The average of the
other compounds ranged from undetectable to 13 ng/L [20]. In the Kabul and Indo
rivers in Pakistan, the presence of three NSAIDs (paracetamol, diclofenac, ibuprofen) was investigated by liquid chromatography with triple quadrupole tandem mass
spectrometry. Authors reported paracetamol in concentrations of 32.4 μg/L while
ibuprofen and diclofenac at 0.21 and 0.16 μg/L, respectively. These three drugs are
those reported with the highest use in Pakistan compared to other
pharmacotherapeutic groups [17].
Using Q Exactive high-performance quadrupole-Orbitrap benchtop, 20 water
samples from the Danube river basin in Romanian territory were examined by
LC-MS/MS to identify and quantify NSAIDs in surface water, reporting the highest
concentrations found in the samples for diclofenac, piroxicam, ibuprofen, indomethacin, and naproxen of 166, 32, 58, 7.7, and 22 ng/L, respectively. The study
emphasizes that the Danube River crosses several countries in Europe, so it is the
responsibility of each one to take care of the river’s water quality, as well as to
evaluate the levels of pollutants and to implement policies for their detection and
elimination [33].
By means of high performance liquid chromatography equipped with a photodiode detector, Madikizela and Chimuka [25] monitored naproxen, ibuprofen, and
diclofenac in the Mbokodweni River in South Africa. Ibuprofen was the most
frequently detected NSAID, and the maximum detection was 0.68 and 11.4 μg/L
for naproxen and ibuprofen, respectively. Diclofenac was found at concentrations
below the limit of quantification in these aqueous samples. The authors conclude that
66
L. I. Castro-Pastrana et al.
Naruo-Shin River samples in Japan. The determination of NSAIDs in river water
samples was carried out using a molecularly imprinted restricted access polymer
(RAM-MIP) for flufenamic acid as a pretreatment column. The concentrations of
mefenamic acid, indomethacin and etodolac in the river water samples were determined to be 0.4, 0.7 and 0.3 ng/L, respectively, while ketoprofen was below the limit
of quantification.
In the city of New Delhi (India), a study was conducted to analyze the presence of
NSAIDs in the surface waters of the Yamuna River. The collected water samples
were quantified using a triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometer coupled with
ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography system (UHPLC), finding ibuprofen
concentrations of 1.09 Æ 1.05 and 2.19 Æ 4.40 μg/L of diclofenac. Additionally, they
revealed that, apart from their therapeutic use, the main source of ecological exposure could be due to the elimination of expired pharmaceutical products in landfills
[24]. Similarly, the presence of five NSAIDS (salicylic acid, ibuprofen, naproxen,
indomethacin and diclofenac) was investigated in river waters of the urban section of
the Pearl River in Guangzhou in southern China by liquid chromatography coupled
with a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer with electrospray ionization in negative
mode. All pharmaceutical products were detected at least once in the Pearl River.
Salicylic acid had the highest maximum concentration (6.7 μg/L) and average
concentration (109 ng/L). The second most abundant was ibuprofen with a maximum and average concentration of 288 and 78 ng/L respectively. The average of the
other compounds ranged from undetectable to 13 ng/L [20]. In the Kabul and Indo
rivers in Pakistan, the presence of three NSAIDs (paracetamol, diclofenac, ibuprofen) was investigated by liquid chromatography with triple quadrupole tandem mass
spectrometry. Authors reported paracetamol in concentrations of 32.4 μg/L while
ibuprofen and diclofenac at 0.21 and 0.16 μg/L, respectively. These three drugs are
those reported with the highest use in Pakistan compared to other
pharmacotherapeutic groups [17].
Using Q Exactive high-performance quadrupole-Orbitrap benchtop, 20 water
samples from the Danube river basin in Romanian territory were examined by
LC-MS/MS to identify and quantify NSAIDs in surface water, reporting the highest
concentrations found in the samples for diclofenac, piroxicam, ibuprofen, indomethacin, and naproxen of 166, 32, 58, 7.7, and 22 ng/L, respectively. The study
emphasizes that the Danube River crosses several countries in Europe, so it is the
responsibility of each one to take care of the river’s water quality, as well as to
evaluate the levels of pollutants and to implement policies for their detection and
elimination [33].
By means of high performance liquid chromatography equipped with a photodiode detector, Madikizela and Chimuka [25] monitored naproxen, ibuprofen, and
diclofenac in the Mbokodweni River in South Africa. Ibuprofen was the most
frequently detected NSAID, and the maximum detection was 0.68 and 11.4 μg/L
for naproxen and ibuprofen, respectively. Diclofenac was found at concentrations
below the limit of quantification in these aqueous samples. The authors conclude that
66
L. I. Castro-Pastrana et al.