observed in the effluents of wastewater treatment plants, as well as in surface,
underground, and even drinking water [19].
In many countries large amounts of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are
consumed annually. In Germany, for example, approximately 836 tons of
acetylsalicylic acid, 622 tons of paracetamol, 345 tons of ibuprofen, and 86 tons of
diclofenac were consumed in 2001. In 2000, in England, 35 tons of naproxen were
consumed [20]. In Poland, 58 tons of ibuprofen, another important drug in this
group, were consumed [21]. Picquet in 2013 reported that Albemarle Company, one
of the world’s leading chemicals companies, produces about 500 tons of naproxen
per year [22].
7 NSAIDs Disposal
Physicochemical techniques for the elimination of microcontaminants are mainly
based on filtration and oxidation processes [23] but may have specific disadvantages,
such as high costs [24], the formation of toxic by-products [25], and inefficiency
against certain compounds [26]. On the other hand, biogenic metals have proven to
be useful catalysts for the elimination of recalcitrant organic compounds.
Removal of pharmaceuticals from the environment is possible and can be
achieved using different methods, such as adsorption and abiotic removal. However,
biodegradation represents the most important method of elimination.
In the following sections, relevant aspects of three examples of NSAIDs,
diclofenac, ibuprofen, and naproxen will be discussed as they are the most consumed
worldwide.
8 Diclofenac
Diclofenac is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medication administered to reduce
inflammation and relieve pain in patients. Recent studies have estimated that, at
present, an average of 1,443 tons of diclofenac is consumed worldwide [27], a
number that does not take into account that diclofenac sold over the counter (without
a prescription) can mask the quantification of its use.
Due to the high resistance to biodegradation and the harmful impact on some
environmental species in low concentration ( 1 μg/L) [28], in 2015 the drug was
included in the first list of substances monitoring in the EU that require surveillance
of the environment in all member states [29]. This type of report is not found in
developing countries and underdeveloped countries.
Today, this medicine is ubiquitously present in the aquatic environment [30] due
to its continuous release by wastewater treatment plants, being considered a pseudopersistent pollutant [31]. According to Vieno and Sillanpää, the maximum concentrations of diclofenac in municipal wastewater can vary between 0.44 and 7.1 μg/L
Biological Technologies Used for the Removal of Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory. . .
307
underground, and even drinking water [19].
In many countries large amounts of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are
consumed annually. In Germany, for example, approximately 836 tons of
acetylsalicylic acid, 622 tons of paracetamol, 345 tons of ibuprofen, and 86 tons of
diclofenac were consumed in 2001. In 2000, in England, 35 tons of naproxen were
consumed [20]. In Poland, 58 tons of ibuprofen, another important drug in this
group, were consumed [21]. Picquet in 2013 reported that Albemarle Company, one
of the world’s leading chemicals companies, produces about 500 tons of naproxen
per year [22].
7 NSAIDs Disposal
Physicochemical techniques for the elimination of microcontaminants are mainly
based on filtration and oxidation processes [23] but may have specific disadvantages,
such as high costs [24], the formation of toxic by-products [25], and inefficiency
against certain compounds [26]. On the other hand, biogenic metals have proven to
be useful catalysts for the elimination of recalcitrant organic compounds.
Removal of pharmaceuticals from the environment is possible and can be
achieved using different methods, such as adsorption and abiotic removal. However,
biodegradation represents the most important method of elimination.
In the following sections, relevant aspects of three examples of NSAIDs,
diclofenac, ibuprofen, and naproxen will be discussed as they are the most consumed
worldwide.
8 Diclofenac
Diclofenac is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medication administered to reduce
inflammation and relieve pain in patients. Recent studies have estimated that, at
present, an average of 1,443 tons of diclofenac is consumed worldwide [27], a
number that does not take into account that diclofenac sold over the counter (without
a prescription) can mask the quantification of its use.
Due to the high resistance to biodegradation and the harmful impact on some
environmental species in low concentration ( 1 μg/L) [28], in 2015 the drug was
included in the first list of substances monitoring in the EU that require surveillance
of the environment in all member states [29]. This type of report is not found in
developing countries and underdeveloped countries.
Today, this medicine is ubiquitously present in the aquatic environment [30] due
to its continuous release by wastewater treatment plants, being considered a pseudopersistent pollutant [31]. According to Vieno and Sillanpää, the maximum concentrations of diclofenac in municipal wastewater can vary between 0.44 and 7.1 μg/L
Biological Technologies Used for the Removal of Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory. . .
307