drinking water, at concentrations ranging from a few nanograms per liter to 15 μg/L
according with the latest reports [6].
The removal of these pollutants is necessary due to their toxicity to all living
organisms. Physicochemical techniques are currently used for the elimination of
NSAIDs; however, biological techniques based on microorganisms could be more
effective for the elimination of pharmaceutical contaminants.
4 Toxicological Effects of NSAIDs
Several studies have been conducted where the toxicity of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs in different animal species exposed to them is demonstrated.
The mechanism of action of drugs can explain alterations in organisms, prostaglandins, which are inhibited, not only participate in the inflammatory process but also in
neurotransmission and ionic transport for the regulation of the circulatory system
and vascular permeability. In addition, there is a reduction in leukotrienes that is
related to cell survival signaling [13].
Reported effects of some nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs on aquatic species
are mentioned below.
Diclofenac has been reported to be teratogenic during the embryonic development of Xenopus laevis (LD 50 9.56 mg/L, LD 50 for malformations 2.74 mg/L) and
Lithobates catesbeianus (LD 50 12.10 mg/L, LD 50 for malformations 2.88 mg/L)
[14]. The adverse effects of this drug were also studied in Cyprinus carpio (LD 50
70.98 mg/L in 96 h) where it was found to induce oxidative stress, mainly in the liver
and gills [15]; this effect was also studied in Hyalella azteca (LD 50 0.467 mg/kg in
72 h) [16, 17].
5 Over the Counter NSAIDs
Currently, over-the-counter medications are very popular, especially monocyclic
and polycyclic nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs [18]. The free sale of NSAIDs
and their easy access for the population represents a problem of accumulation in the
environment, because they are not always eliminated in the correct way, in addition
to the excretion of these through urine and feces to municipal effluents.
6 Consumption of NSAIDs in the World
Each year, a large number of pharmaceutical compounds are consumed, and after
their partial metabolism, they enter the wastewater treatment plants. However, the
elimination of these compounds is not efficient, and pharmaceutical products are still
306
N. Ramírez-Durán et al.
according with the latest reports [6].
The removal of these pollutants is necessary due to their toxicity to all living
organisms. Physicochemical techniques are currently used for the elimination of
NSAIDs; however, biological techniques based on microorganisms could be more
effective for the elimination of pharmaceutical contaminants.
4 Toxicological Effects of NSAIDs
Several studies have been conducted where the toxicity of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs in different animal species exposed to them is demonstrated.
The mechanism of action of drugs can explain alterations in organisms, prostaglandins, which are inhibited, not only participate in the inflammatory process but also in
neurotransmission and ionic transport for the regulation of the circulatory system
and vascular permeability. In addition, there is a reduction in leukotrienes that is
related to cell survival signaling [13].
Reported effects of some nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs on aquatic species
are mentioned below.
Diclofenac has been reported to be teratogenic during the embryonic development of Xenopus laevis (LD 50 9.56 mg/L, LD 50 for malformations 2.74 mg/L) and
Lithobates catesbeianus (LD 50 12.10 mg/L, LD 50 for malformations 2.88 mg/L)
[14]. The adverse effects of this drug were also studied in Cyprinus carpio (LD 50
70.98 mg/L in 96 h) where it was found to induce oxidative stress, mainly in the liver
and gills [15]; this effect was also studied in Hyalella azteca (LD 50 0.467 mg/kg in
72 h) [16, 17].
5 Over the Counter NSAIDs
Currently, over-the-counter medications are very popular, especially monocyclic
and polycyclic nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs [18]. The free sale of NSAIDs
and their easy access for the population represents a problem of accumulation in the
environment, because they are not always eliminated in the correct way, in addition
to the excretion of these through urine and feces to municipal effluents.
6 Consumption of NSAIDs in the World
Each year, a large number of pharmaceutical compounds are consumed, and after
their partial metabolism, they enter the wastewater treatment plants. However, the
elimination of these compounds is not efficient, and pharmaceutical products are still
306
N. Ramírez-Durán et al.