1 Introduction
The textile industry is one of the fastest growing industries in Asian countries.
Approximately 40,000 types of dyes and pigments are used in textile industries,
and more than 7 Â 10
5 tons of these dyes are produced annually worldwide
(Puvaneswari et al. 2006). About 280,000 tons of textile dye effluent are discharged
every year throughout the world (Pang and Abdullah 2013). The discharge of
untreated industrial effluents affects the quality of the surface water, groundwater,
soil, and plants of the region. The textile industry-contaminated soil contains azo
groups, anthraquinone, and metal phthalocyanine-based dyes. In some cases, harmful metal substances such as chromium, copper, zinc, and lead are present in the soil.
Furthermore, the salts used in the dyeing fixation process such as chloride, sulfate,
and carbonates exist in the soil matrix and underground water, ultimately causing
health hazards among livestock and humans (Kumar et al. 2007; Marechal et al.
2006; Puvaneswari et al. 2006). Even developed countries, such as Germany, the
United States, Netherlands, and South Korea, report land contamination by metals
and organic compounds in many places (Moghadam et al. 2016). Organic and
inorganic waste contaminant removal from soil is an important and challenging
task. Very few technologies, including air sparging, bio-venting, vapor extraction,
chemical oxidation, soil washing and flushing, and phytoremediation and bioremediation, are available for soil remediation (Ricart et al. 2008).
Indian researchers have been developing soil remediation using phytoremediation
and the microbial remediation process (Saxena et al. 2019; Goutam et al. 2018;
Gautam et al. 2017; Bharagava et al. 2017a, b, c; Saxena et al. 2016; Chandra et al.
2015; Saxena and Bharagava 2015, 2017; Kumar et al. 2011; Shete et al. 2007;
Kamaruzzaman et al. 2009). Most of the researchers have studied phytoremediation
(bio-accumulation) of metal ions from the soil using various mangrove species such as
Avicennia marina (Kumar et al. 2011; Shete et al. 2007), Rhizophora apiculata
(Kamaruzzaman et al. 2009), and Rhizophora mucronata (Lam.) (Pahalawattaarachchi
et al. 2009). They claimed that the mangroves have greater uptake of heavy metals at
various concentrations. Most metal ions (Zn, Cu, Cd, Cr, Fe, Ni) were accumulated at
different parts of the plant, but the Pb ion was accumulated on the roots.
Electrokinetics (EK) is a treatment technology for the removal of pollutants that is
applicable for both in situ and ex situ processes under an electrical potential gradient,
including the EK phenomena of electromigration, electro-osmosis, electrophoresis,
and electrolysis. The technology has been recognized as an efficient process for the
removal of pollutants of different types from contaminated sites. The textile industry
is one of the main culprits for an unhealthy environment, causing severe problems
worldwide. In the dyeing process, 10% to 25% of textile dyes are lost and 2% to 20%
of the dyes are directly discharged into water bodies and the soil (Carmen and
Daniela 2010; Soloman et al. 2009). These environmentally unwanted textile effluents produce toxic carcinogenic compounds (e.g., benzidine, anthraquinone, naphthalene, and other aromatic compounds) by the natural degradation process (Suteu
2009; Zaharia et al. 2009). The textile dyes are very colorful: 10,000 different types
of dyes are used in the textile industry for cotton fabrics. The textile dyes are highly
184
S. Annamalai and M. Sundaram
The textile industry is one of the fastest growing industries in Asian countries.
Approximately 40,000 types of dyes and pigments are used in textile industries,
and more than 7 Â 10
5 tons of these dyes are produced annually worldwide
(Puvaneswari et al. 2006). About 280,000 tons of textile dye effluent are discharged
every year throughout the world (Pang and Abdullah 2013). The discharge of
untreated industrial effluents affects the quality of the surface water, groundwater,
soil, and plants of the region. The textile industry-contaminated soil contains azo
groups, anthraquinone, and metal phthalocyanine-based dyes. In some cases, harmful metal substances such as chromium, copper, zinc, and lead are present in the soil.
Furthermore, the salts used in the dyeing fixation process such as chloride, sulfate,
and carbonates exist in the soil matrix and underground water, ultimately causing
health hazards among livestock and humans (Kumar et al. 2007; Marechal et al.
2006; Puvaneswari et al. 2006). Even developed countries, such as Germany, the
United States, Netherlands, and South Korea, report land contamination by metals
and organic compounds in many places (Moghadam et al. 2016). Organic and
inorganic waste contaminant removal from soil is an important and challenging
task. Very few technologies, including air sparging, bio-venting, vapor extraction,
chemical oxidation, soil washing and flushing, and phytoremediation and bioremediation, are available for soil remediation (Ricart et al. 2008).
Indian researchers have been developing soil remediation using phytoremediation
and the microbial remediation process (Saxena et al. 2019; Goutam et al. 2018;
Gautam et al. 2017; Bharagava et al. 2017a, b, c; Saxena et al. 2016; Chandra et al.
2015; Saxena and Bharagava 2015, 2017; Kumar et al. 2011; Shete et al. 2007;
Kamaruzzaman et al. 2009). Most of the researchers have studied phytoremediation
(bio-accumulation) of metal ions from the soil using various mangrove species such as
Avicennia marina (Kumar et al. 2011; Shete et al. 2007), Rhizophora apiculata
(Kamaruzzaman et al. 2009), and Rhizophora mucronata (Lam.) (Pahalawattaarachchi
et al. 2009). They claimed that the mangroves have greater uptake of heavy metals at
various concentrations. Most metal ions (Zn, Cu, Cd, Cr, Fe, Ni) were accumulated at
different parts of the plant, but the Pb ion was accumulated on the roots.
Electrokinetics (EK) is a treatment technology for the removal of pollutants that is
applicable for both in situ and ex situ processes under an electrical potential gradient,
including the EK phenomena of electromigration, electro-osmosis, electrophoresis,
and electrolysis. The technology has been recognized as an efficient process for the
removal of pollutants of different types from contaminated sites. The textile industry
is one of the main culprits for an unhealthy environment, causing severe problems
worldwide. In the dyeing process, 10% to 25% of textile dyes are lost and 2% to 20%
of the dyes are directly discharged into water bodies and the soil (Carmen and
Daniela 2010; Soloman et al. 2009). These environmentally unwanted textile effluents produce toxic carcinogenic compounds (e.g., benzidine, anthraquinone, naphthalene, and other aromatic compounds) by the natural degradation process (Suteu
2009; Zaharia et al. 2009). The textile dyes are very colorful: 10,000 different types
of dyes are used in the textile industry for cotton fabrics. The textile dyes are highly
184
S. Annamalai and M. Sundaram