Impacts of pharmaceuticals: Pharmaceuticals can enter the water and soil through
disposal, down the drains excretion, hospital and industry effluent. These routes
include a range from the time they are being produced until their use or disposal. The
different classes of pharmaceuticals can be grouped into antibiotics, antiinflammatory, antidepressants, and antiepileptic, as well as various hormones can
pass through different routes and ultimately affect the environment and human
health (EPA 2013; Gilbert 2012) (Table 6.3).
Entering to the environment, the pharmaceutical compounds and their metabolites become potential risks to the human health and biota life at trace levels in the
environment (Li et al. 2014). It has been studied that the presence of antibiotics in
environment is associated with chronic toxicity to some organisms and enhancing
of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. The potential harmful impact of antibiotic residues
on the living environment has received a special global concern (Kummerer 2009).
The low concentration of drugs and synthetic organic compounds affect the
endocrine activity, metabolism, and development in humans, promoting
antibiotic-resistant bacteria (Zhang et al. 2013). Excessive use of antibiotics can
Table 6.3 Common pharmaceuticals compounds in wastewater
Pharmaceutical compounds
Applications
1. Acetaminophen
Analgesic
2. Albuterol
Bronchodilator
3. Bezafibrate
Lipid controller
4. Caffeine
Energizing
5. Carbamazepine
Antiepileptic, psychiatric drug
6. Cimetidine
Stomach acid reducer
7. Clofibric acid
Lipid controller (active metabolite)
8. Cotinine
Metabolite of nicotine
9. Cyclophosphamide
Antineoplastic
10. Diclofenac
Analgesic/anti-inflammatory
11. Diphenhydramine
Allergy relief
12. Enalaprilat
Antihypertensive
13. Fenoprofen
Analgesic/anti-inflammatory
14. Fluoxetine
Psychiatric drug (Prozac)
15. Gemfibrozil
Lipid regulator
16. Ibuprofen
Analgesic/anti-inflammatory
17. Indomethacin
Analgesic/anti-inflammatory
18. Ketoprofen
Analgesic/anti-inflammatory
19. Metformin
Glycemic control
20. Naproxen
Analgesic/anti-inflammatory
21. Norfluoxetine
Metabolite of fluoxetine
22. Pentoxifylline
Vasodilator
23. Sulfamethoxazole
Antibiotic
24. Trimethoprim
Antibiotic
25. Warfarin
Anticoagulant
6 Constructed Wetlands: A Clean-Green Technology for Degradation and. . .
143
disposal, down the drains excretion, hospital and industry effluent. These routes
include a range from the time they are being produced until their use or disposal. The
different classes of pharmaceuticals can be grouped into antibiotics, antiinflammatory, antidepressants, and antiepileptic, as well as various hormones can
pass through different routes and ultimately affect the environment and human
health (EPA 2013; Gilbert 2012) (Table 6.3).
Entering to the environment, the pharmaceutical compounds and their metabolites become potential risks to the human health and biota life at trace levels in the
environment (Li et al. 2014). It has been studied that the presence of antibiotics in
environment is associated with chronic toxicity to some organisms and enhancing
of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. The potential harmful impact of antibiotic residues
on the living environment has received a special global concern (Kummerer 2009).
The low concentration of drugs and synthetic organic compounds affect the
endocrine activity, metabolism, and development in humans, promoting
antibiotic-resistant bacteria (Zhang et al. 2013). Excessive use of antibiotics can
Table 6.3 Common pharmaceuticals compounds in wastewater
Pharmaceutical compounds
Applications
1. Acetaminophen
Analgesic
2. Albuterol
Bronchodilator
3. Bezafibrate
Lipid controller
4. Caffeine
Energizing
5. Carbamazepine
Antiepileptic, psychiatric drug
6. Cimetidine
Stomach acid reducer
7. Clofibric acid
Lipid controller (active metabolite)
8. Cotinine
Metabolite of nicotine
9. Cyclophosphamide
Antineoplastic
10. Diclofenac
Analgesic/anti-inflammatory
11. Diphenhydramine
Allergy relief
12. Enalaprilat
Antihypertensive
13. Fenoprofen
Analgesic/anti-inflammatory
14. Fluoxetine
Psychiatric drug (Prozac)
15. Gemfibrozil
Lipid regulator
16. Ibuprofen
Analgesic/anti-inflammatory
17. Indomethacin
Analgesic/anti-inflammatory
18. Ketoprofen
Analgesic/anti-inflammatory
19. Metformin
Glycemic control
20. Naproxen
Analgesic/anti-inflammatory
21. Norfluoxetine
Metabolite of fluoxetine
22. Pentoxifylline
Vasodilator
23. Sulfamethoxazole
Antibiotic
24. Trimethoprim
Antibiotic
25. Warfarin
Anticoagulant
6 Constructed Wetlands: A Clean-Green Technology for Degradation and. . .
143