develop resistant bacteria in animals and humans which may cause infection and
not respond with regular antibiotic treatment. Such infection may exist in the body
for a long period of time, and the resistant antibiotics may not be treated with
common antibiotics. Antibiotic-resistant infections have been assumed to cause
some 23,000 deaths each year only in the USA, alone. It has been concluded that
the longer an antibiotic persists in environment in an active form, the higher the
potential for native soil bacterial populations to be negatively affected (Schmitt
et al. 2005).
Major portion of the pharmaceuticals given to the animals are poorly absorbed
in the animal gut, and, as a result, there is a large excretion of antibiotics and
pharmaceuticals in urine and feces. In antibiotics, about 90% of them are excreted
as the parent compound in excretion. Excretory organs eliminate polar compounds
(tetracyclines and tylosin) more efficiently than compounds that have high lipophilic effect (Boxall et al. 2002). Pharmaceuticals have toxic effects on human
health like inflammatory reactions in liver, when exposed to diclofenac (Li et al.
2014) and retardation of growth of embryonic cells (Zhang et al. 2014).
Several studies have concluded that diclofenac which is used as inflammatory
medicine has effect on the visceral gout and extensive population declines of several
species of Asian vultures and has also effect on the kidney function in trout fishes
(White et al. 2006; Kummerer 2009).
5.1.1 Pharmaceutical Release in Water Bodies and Their Uptake
and Detoxification by the Mechanisms of Hydrophytes
and Microbes
Usually, constructed wetlands consist of shallow ponds, beds, or trenches that
contain floating or emergent rooted vegetation in which aerobic and anaerobic
degradation take place (Camacho-Munoz et al. 2012). Recently, it has been shown
that treating wastewater using constructed wetlands (CWs) can serve as a costeffective and promising alternative to conventional wastewater treatment methods
for reducing levels of nitrogen, phosphorous, pharmaceuticals, and the BOD in water
(Breitholtz et al. 2012; Zhu and Chen 2014).
Wetland construction is the solution for minimization of pharmaceuticals in the
water. Meanwhile, constructed wetlands have been introduced as an alternative to
wastewater treatment for micro-pollutants removal (Matamoros and Boyona 2006).
CWs can vary based on design configuration and other factors that will influence
PPCPs removal. Factors including the nature of feeding wastewater, the pattern of
water flow, hydraulic retention time (HRT), redox conditions, and temperature can
affect the removal efficiency of pollutants in CWs (Zhu and Chen 2014).
The vital environmental role of a wetland in the environment is a natural water
filter. In smaller areas where the costs of construction and maintenance of comprehensive wastewater treatment facilities are not practical, wetlands are often used to
decrease nutrients and polish wastewater before it is discharged into the environment
(Conkle et al. 2012). Using constructed wetlands has been proposed as an alternative
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S. Khan et al.
not respond with regular antibiotic treatment. Such infection may exist in the body
for a long period of time, and the resistant antibiotics may not be treated with
common antibiotics. Antibiotic-resistant infections have been assumed to cause
some 23,000 deaths each year only in the USA, alone. It has been concluded that
the longer an antibiotic persists in environment in an active form, the higher the
potential for native soil bacterial populations to be negatively affected (Schmitt
et al. 2005).
Major portion of the pharmaceuticals given to the animals are poorly absorbed
in the animal gut, and, as a result, there is a large excretion of antibiotics and
pharmaceuticals in urine and feces. In antibiotics, about 90% of them are excreted
as the parent compound in excretion. Excretory organs eliminate polar compounds
(tetracyclines and tylosin) more efficiently than compounds that have high lipophilic effect (Boxall et al. 2002). Pharmaceuticals have toxic effects on human
health like inflammatory reactions in liver, when exposed to diclofenac (Li et al.
2014) and retardation of growth of embryonic cells (Zhang et al. 2014).
Several studies have concluded that diclofenac which is used as inflammatory
medicine has effect on the visceral gout and extensive population declines of several
species of Asian vultures and has also effect on the kidney function in trout fishes
(White et al. 2006; Kummerer 2009).
5.1.1 Pharmaceutical Release in Water Bodies and Their Uptake
and Detoxification by the Mechanisms of Hydrophytes
and Microbes
Usually, constructed wetlands consist of shallow ponds, beds, or trenches that
contain floating or emergent rooted vegetation in which aerobic and anaerobic
degradation take place (Camacho-Munoz et al. 2012). Recently, it has been shown
that treating wastewater using constructed wetlands (CWs) can serve as a costeffective and promising alternative to conventional wastewater treatment methods
for reducing levels of nitrogen, phosphorous, pharmaceuticals, and the BOD in water
(Breitholtz et al. 2012; Zhu and Chen 2014).
Wetland construction is the solution for minimization of pharmaceuticals in the
water. Meanwhile, constructed wetlands have been introduced as an alternative to
wastewater treatment for micro-pollutants removal (Matamoros and Boyona 2006).
CWs can vary based on design configuration and other factors that will influence
PPCPs removal. Factors including the nature of feeding wastewater, the pattern of
water flow, hydraulic retention time (HRT), redox conditions, and temperature can
affect the removal efficiency of pollutants in CWs (Zhu and Chen 2014).
The vital environmental role of a wetland in the environment is a natural water
filter. In smaller areas where the costs of construction and maintenance of comprehensive wastewater treatment facilities are not practical, wetlands are often used to
decrease nutrients and polish wastewater before it is discharged into the environment
(Conkle et al. 2012). Using constructed wetlands has been proposed as an alternative
144
S. Khan et al.