123
The formulation of public policy is an essential government function to address
societal challenges (Birkland 2016). Policy-making steps include: (1) Identifying
priority problems; (2) shaping potential policy solutions to solve priority problems;
(3) legitimizing policy prescriptions via public input or legislative processes leading
to laws or regulations; (4) implementation of laws or regulations; (5) re-evaluation
of implemented laws or regulations; and (6) maintenance, succession, or termination of policies as needed. In wealthy democracies recent trends suggest that policy
makers are more actively engaging the public today—this also helps to educate
policy makers (Gramberger 2001; Priscoli 2004).
Public planning includes environmental, land use, regional, urban, and other
infrastructural domains (Kelly 2010). Planning consists of processes that integrate
activities or investments required to achieve desired public policy goals. Mainstream
planning has been evolving in the US to conduct research and be more inclusive in
obtaining diverse sources of public input, also helping to educate planners (Umemoto
2001; Forsyth 2012). Planning is related to forecasting, where alternative future
scenarios for a society can be compared with respect to goal achievement. In the
context of the drylands, planning plays vital roles with respect to transportation
networks, water resources, marketing infrastructure, telecommunications, energy
use, or managing human populations.
18
In wealthy democracies with well-educated citizens, both policy making and
planning have significant avenues for public input. This includes voting to elect
policy makers or use of face-to-face meetings or electronic means to solicit stakeholder input.
19
In some nations of the Global South, however, democratic processes
may be muted and wide communication gaps between government and citizens may
occur. Policy making and planning can thus largely be top-down processes in such
situations.
20
There are exceptions, however. Valencia-Sandoval et al. (2010) used
participatory methods to plan for sustainable community landscapes in Mexico.
18 Eastern Africa provides good examples of the potential transformation of dryland economies
with respect to recent investments to improve road and rail networks (https://thediplomat.
com/2019/01/the-chinese-railways-remolding-east-africa/). Such infrastructure will promote
many aspects of pastoral development. In addition, Ethiopian planners are preparing for an anticipated exodus of farmers to urban locales as a result of rural overpopulation and climate change.
Plans include designing intermediate settlements to attract and retain migrants before they reach
congested, big-city destinations where many public services are already overwhelmed (http://
www.spiegel.de/international/tomorrow/ethiopia-plans-to-build-8000-new-cities-in-countrysidea-1197153.html).
19 While planning is often associated with urban settings, US federal agencies have long incorporated participatory public planning into rural conservation and management efforts involving
federal lands or federal funds. Examples of federal planning efforts include the National
Environmental Policy Act (NEPA; https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-nationalenvironmental-policy-act). The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has established best
practices for public participation (https://www.epa.gov/international-cooperation/publicparticipation-guide-introduction-public-participation).
20 D. L. Coppock, personal observations.
7 Public Participation Approaches for a New Era in Dryland Science and Stewardship…
The formulation of public policy is an essential government function to address
societal challenges (Birkland 2016). Policy-making steps include: (1) Identifying
priority problems; (2) shaping potential policy solutions to solve priority problems;
(3) legitimizing policy prescriptions via public input or legislative processes leading
to laws or regulations; (4) implementation of laws or regulations; (5) re-evaluation
of implemented laws or regulations; and (6) maintenance, succession, or termination of policies as needed. In wealthy democracies recent trends suggest that policy
makers are more actively engaging the public today—this also helps to educate
policy makers (Gramberger 2001; Priscoli 2004).
Public planning includes environmental, land use, regional, urban, and other
infrastructural domains (Kelly 2010). Planning consists of processes that integrate
activities or investments required to achieve desired public policy goals. Mainstream
planning has been evolving in the US to conduct research and be more inclusive in
obtaining diverse sources of public input, also helping to educate planners (Umemoto
2001; Forsyth 2012). Planning is related to forecasting, where alternative future
scenarios for a society can be compared with respect to goal achievement. In the
context of the drylands, planning plays vital roles with respect to transportation
networks, water resources, marketing infrastructure, telecommunications, energy
use, or managing human populations.
18
In wealthy democracies with well-educated citizens, both policy making and
planning have significant avenues for public input. This includes voting to elect
policy makers or use of face-to-face meetings or electronic means to solicit stakeholder input.
19
In some nations of the Global South, however, democratic processes
may be muted and wide communication gaps between government and citizens may
occur. Policy making and planning can thus largely be top-down processes in such
situations.
20
There are exceptions, however. Valencia-Sandoval et al. (2010) used
participatory methods to plan for sustainable community landscapes in Mexico.
18 Eastern Africa provides good examples of the potential transformation of dryland economies
with respect to recent investments to improve road and rail networks (https://thediplomat.
com/2019/01/the-chinese-railways-remolding-east-africa/). Such infrastructure will promote
many aspects of pastoral development. In addition, Ethiopian planners are preparing for an anticipated exodus of farmers to urban locales as a result of rural overpopulation and climate change.
Plans include designing intermediate settlements to attract and retain migrants before they reach
congested, big-city destinations where many public services are already overwhelmed (http://
www.spiegel.de/international/tomorrow/ethiopia-plans-to-build-8000-new-cities-in-countrysidea-1197153.html).
19 While planning is often associated with urban settings, US federal agencies have long incorporated participatory public planning into rural conservation and management efforts involving
federal lands or federal funds. Examples of federal planning efforts include the National
Environmental Policy Act (NEPA; https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-nationalenvironmental-policy-act). The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has established best
practices for public participation (https://www.epa.gov/international-cooperation/publicparticipation-guide-introduction-public-participation).
20 D. L. Coppock, personal observations.
7 Public Participation Approaches for a New Era in Dryland Science and Stewardship…