558
Chinsinga and Poulton 2014). In the early 2000s, the scaling down of TIP contributed
to food deficits (Wiggins and Brooks 2010). Food deficits in the early 2010s have also
been partly blamed on the downscaling of FISP (Pauw and Thurlow 2014). There
could be several reasons why maize–fertilizer response or nitrogen use efficiency is
low for beneficiaries of FISP such that addressing those bottlenecks would be necessary for the success of the program. Jayne and Rashid (2013), Snapp et al. (2014),
Messina et al. (2017), and Ricker-Gilbert and Jayne (2017) show that poor soil fertility, loss of soil organic matter, water stress, and poor agronomic practices are among
key bottlenecks. Furthermore, poor timing of input delivery, input diversion, recipient
of less than the required amount, and beneficiary targeting errors have also limited
efficient use of farm input subsidies (Centre for Development Management 2017;
Holden and Lunduka 2013; Lunduka et al. 2014; Lunduka et al. 2013).
Poor Soil Fertility
The soils are highly degraded in Malawi due to nutrient mining, resulting in the depletion of nitrogen and other essential nutrients. Simply increasing nutrient application
through subsidized inorganic fertilizer without first addressing soil degradation issues
does not solve soil fertility problems (Ngwira et al. 2013b; Tchale and Sauer 2007).
The current implementation strategy of FISP where soil conditions are grossly ignored
will keep on decreasing its marginal return. Although it is expected that the program
would have residual effect in nutrient buildup, especially phosphorous, this expectation is unlikely to materialize because of the heavy nutrient mining (Branca et al.
2011). Snapp et al. (2014) therefore recommended targeting inorganic fertilizer application on plots with sufficient soil quality or encouraging farmers to first adopt soil
fertility management technologies. The discussion in Sect. 4.3 provides evidence that
maize–fertilizer response is high on good-quality soils. Mueller et al. (2012) further
indicated that maize would increase by 50% if soil nutrient deficiencies are addressed.
Thus, if FISP targets the soil, the impact is likely to be consistently higher than the
current targeting of the farmers who, in most cases, cultivate degraded soils.
Loss of Soil Organic Matter
Related to nutrient depletion is the reduction of soil organic matter (SOM), and
hence soil organic carbon (SOC) (Chilimba et al. 2005; Snapp et al. 2014). Soils in
Malawi are highly depleted of SOM (though not well quantified for specific sites) to
the extent that they cannot effectively support crop productivity (Messina et al.
2017). The responsiveness of maize yield to inorganic fertilizer on farmer-managed
plots has decreased by half of what is expected and is only 20% of the agronomic
average because of the decline in SOM (Snapp et al. 2014). Unfortunately, sole reliance on subsidized inorganic fertilizer does not solve the problem of SOM
(Mafongoya et al. 2006; Ngwira et al. 2013b). Inorganic fertilizer has high nutrient
content with rapid release into the soil, but the retention rate is low when soils are
S. P. Katengeza
Chinsinga and Poulton 2014). In the early 2000s, the scaling down of TIP contributed
to food deficits (Wiggins and Brooks 2010). Food deficits in the early 2010s have also
been partly blamed on the downscaling of FISP (Pauw and Thurlow 2014). There
could be several reasons why maize–fertilizer response or nitrogen use efficiency is
low for beneficiaries of FISP such that addressing those bottlenecks would be necessary for the success of the program. Jayne and Rashid (2013), Snapp et al. (2014),
Messina et al. (2017), and Ricker-Gilbert and Jayne (2017) show that poor soil fertility, loss of soil organic matter, water stress, and poor agronomic practices are among
key bottlenecks. Furthermore, poor timing of input delivery, input diversion, recipient
of less than the required amount, and beneficiary targeting errors have also limited
efficient use of farm input subsidies (Centre for Development Management 2017;
Holden and Lunduka 2013; Lunduka et al. 2014; Lunduka et al. 2013).
Poor Soil Fertility
The soils are highly degraded in Malawi due to nutrient mining, resulting in the depletion of nitrogen and other essential nutrients. Simply increasing nutrient application
through subsidized inorganic fertilizer without first addressing soil degradation issues
does not solve soil fertility problems (Ngwira et al. 2013b; Tchale and Sauer 2007).
The current implementation strategy of FISP where soil conditions are grossly ignored
will keep on decreasing its marginal return. Although it is expected that the program
would have residual effect in nutrient buildup, especially phosphorous, this expectation is unlikely to materialize because of the heavy nutrient mining (Branca et al.
2011). Snapp et al. (2014) therefore recommended targeting inorganic fertilizer application on plots with sufficient soil quality or encouraging farmers to first adopt soil
fertility management technologies. The discussion in Sect. 4.3 provides evidence that
maize–fertilizer response is high on good-quality soils. Mueller et al. (2012) further
indicated that maize would increase by 50% if soil nutrient deficiencies are addressed.
Thus, if FISP targets the soil, the impact is likely to be consistently higher than the
current targeting of the farmers who, in most cases, cultivate degraded soils.
Loss of Soil Organic Matter
Related to nutrient depletion is the reduction of soil organic matter (SOM), and
hence soil organic carbon (SOC) (Chilimba et al. 2005; Snapp et al. 2014). Soils in
Malawi are highly depleted of SOM (though not well quantified for specific sites) to
the extent that they cannot effectively support crop productivity (Messina et al.
2017). The responsiveness of maize yield to inorganic fertilizer on farmer-managed
plots has decreased by half of what is expected and is only 20% of the agronomic
average because of the decline in SOM (Snapp et al. 2014). Unfortunately, sole reliance on subsidized inorganic fertilizer does not solve the problem of SOM
(Mafongoya et al. 2006; Ngwira et al. 2013b). Inorganic fertilizer has high nutrient
content with rapid release into the soil, but the retention rate is low when soils are
S. P. Katengeza