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deprived of organic matter, and its use efficiency is reduced. The loss of SOM in
maize-based farming systems with continuous cropping therefore needs urgent
attention if interventions such as FISP are to be effective. Building SOM requires
application of organic amendments.
Water Stress
Maize production in many countries in SSA, including Malawi, is rain-fed in a
single rainy season that is characterized by frequent dry spells resulting in water
stress (Denning et al. 2009). This significantly affects maize–fertilizer response.
Evidence has shown that when a drought occurs, even fertilizer subsidy does not
save millions of Malawians from the hunger crisis that results from the poor harvests. For example, in 2001–2002, there was a hunger crisis despite the implementation of TIP. Although some critics blamed the scaling down of TIP for the hunger
(Wiggins and Brooks 2010), the associated drought significantly contributed to the
crisis. In 2004–2005 despite the ETIP, about 4 million Malawians were affected by
hunger, mainly because of drought (Chabvunguma and Munthali 2008; Chinsinga
2008). In 2014–2015 and 2015–2016, maize production was respectively estimated
at 2.8 million Mg and 2.4 million Mg down from 3.9 million Mg in 2013–2014
despite 150,000 Mg of inorganic fertilizer being subsidized in all the three consecutive years (Fig. 2). The difference in maize production was mainly due to regular dry
spells in 2014–2015 and 2015–2016 cropping seasons. The Famine Early Warning
Systems Network Malawi (2015) also reported that maize harvests in 2014–2015
were 25–30% lower than the previous five-year average, and a deficit of 500,000 Mg
was recorded mainly due to late-season droughts.
This means that access to inorganic fertilizer through FISP has insignificant
impact on maize production and productivity in the presence of drought, because
the majority of the beneficiaries lack alternative technologies to sustain production
(Giller et al. 1997 in Chilimba et al., 2005). Farmers also tend to reduce the use of
productivity-enhancing inputs such as inorganic fertilizer in response to past adverse
conditions (Sesmero et al. 2017). Controlling for water stress is fundamental to
achieving higher fertilizer response rate. While irrigation is rarely used (Barrett
et al. 2017) due to high investment and maintenance costs, integrating inorganic and
organic fertilizer would enhance water and inorganic fertilizer use efficiency,
thereby increasing the impact of subsidized inorganic fertilizer. Addressing both
nutrient and water deficiencies can increase maize yield by 75% (Mueller et al. 2012).
4.3 Impact of Integrating Inorganic and Organic Fertilizers
Having identified key factors associated with poor maize–fertilizer response, studies have recommended integration of inorganic and organic fertilizer as a remedy
(e.g., Chilimba et al. 2005; Mafongoya et al. 2006; Tchale and Sauer 2007).
Impact of Farm Input Subsidies Vis-à-Vis Climate-Smart Technologies on Maize…
deprived of organic matter, and its use efficiency is reduced. The loss of SOM in
maize-based farming systems with continuous cropping therefore needs urgent
attention if interventions such as FISP are to be effective. Building SOM requires
application of organic amendments.
Water Stress
Maize production in many countries in SSA, including Malawi, is rain-fed in a
single rainy season that is characterized by frequent dry spells resulting in water
stress (Denning et al. 2009). This significantly affects maize–fertilizer response.
Evidence has shown that when a drought occurs, even fertilizer subsidy does not
save millions of Malawians from the hunger crisis that results from the poor harvests. For example, in 2001–2002, there was a hunger crisis despite the implementation of TIP. Although some critics blamed the scaling down of TIP for the hunger
(Wiggins and Brooks 2010), the associated drought significantly contributed to the
crisis. In 2004–2005 despite the ETIP, about 4 million Malawians were affected by
hunger, mainly because of drought (Chabvunguma and Munthali 2008; Chinsinga
2008). In 2014–2015 and 2015–2016, maize production was respectively estimated
at 2.8 million Mg and 2.4 million Mg down from 3.9 million Mg in 2013–2014
despite 150,000 Mg of inorganic fertilizer being subsidized in all the three consecutive years (Fig. 2). The difference in maize production was mainly due to regular dry
spells in 2014–2015 and 2015–2016 cropping seasons. The Famine Early Warning
Systems Network Malawi (2015) also reported that maize harvests in 2014–2015
were 25–30% lower than the previous five-year average, and a deficit of 500,000 Mg
was recorded mainly due to late-season droughts.
This means that access to inorganic fertilizer through FISP has insignificant
impact on maize production and productivity in the presence of drought, because
the majority of the beneficiaries lack alternative technologies to sustain production
(Giller et al. 1997 in Chilimba et al., 2005). Farmers also tend to reduce the use of
productivity-enhancing inputs such as inorganic fertilizer in response to past adverse
conditions (Sesmero et al. 2017). Controlling for water stress is fundamental to
achieving higher fertilizer response rate. While irrigation is rarely used (Barrett
et al. 2017) due to high investment and maintenance costs, integrating inorganic and
organic fertilizer would enhance water and inorganic fertilizer use efficiency,
thereby increasing the impact of subsidized inorganic fertilizer. Addressing both
nutrient and water deficiencies can increase maize yield by 75% (Mueller et al. 2012).
4.3 Impact of Integrating Inorganic and Organic Fertilizers
Having identified key factors associated with poor maize–fertilizer response, studies have recommended integration of inorganic and organic fertilizer as a remedy
(e.g., Chilimba et al. 2005; Mafongoya et al. 2006; Tchale and Sauer 2007).
Impact of Farm Input Subsidies Vis-à-Vis Climate-Smart Technologies on Maize…