14 The Bioeconomy of Production of Microalgal Pigments
343
destroys virus infected cells was observed (Park et al. 2010). Along with cell mediated immunity, astaxanthin has stimulated humoral immunity in murine model by
inducing production of polyclonal IgG and IgM antibodies (Jyonouchi et al. 1995;
Okai and Higashi-Okai 1996). Main pathological features of cardiovascular diseases
are reduced by the antioxidative properties of astaxanthin in experimental model
systems and humans. Thus, this pigment can be considered as latent agents for
cardiovascular atherosclerotic disease treatments (Fassett and Coombes 2011).
Antioxidants by inhibiting oxidative damage of the cells decrease their rate of
mutagenesis and carcinogenesis. In human tumors, cell to cell contact through gap
junction is decreased. Gap restoration junctions by elevating the connexin-43 protein
levels tend to decrease tumor cell progression. Natural carotenoids, specifically
canthaxanthin and astaxanthin, increased gap junctions in mouse embryo and human
skin fibroblasts (Hanusch et al. 1995; Daubrawa et al. 2005; Hix et al. 2004). Astaxanthin showed better anti-tumor activity by inhibiting the growth several tumor cells
(Palozza et al. 2009). Further studies showed that astaxanthin lead to cell death and
inhibited cell proliferation of mammary tumors in models of chemically induced
murine (Tanaka et al. 1995; Jyonouchi et al. 2000; Nakao et al. 2010). The peroxynitrite reaction with lutein and astaxanthin leads to the formation of Nitrolutein and
Nitroastaxanthin which are proved to possess enhanced anticancer properties as they
inhibited mouse skin papillomas (Maoka et al. 2012).
H. pluvialis extracts containing astaxanthin have been accepted as a supplement in
humans or animal diets and reduces the risk of various disorders (Kidd 2011; Yuan
et al. 2011). Dietary astaxanthin enhances the fish and shrimp immunity system
which eventually elevates their survival and growth. Additionally, it plays a crucial
part in the markets of feeds for aquaculture and livestock (Dufosse et al. 2005;
Cysewski and Todd 2004; Guerin et al. 2003). Further, Astaxanthin is utilized in
food, feed, nutraceutical, medical and cosmetic industries. In addition, market availability of astaxanthin in distinct powder and capsule forms reveals their enhanced
applications in food industries. The patented benefits of this algal pigment include its
use in preventing inflammation, cancer, bacterial infections, cardiovascular diseases,
improving brain functioning, and skin thickness.
14.3.6 Secondary Pigments, Essential Lipids, and Other
Pigments
The secondary pigments in algae include the secondary carotenoids such as fucoxanthin, canxanthin, cryptoxanthin, violaxanthin, and echinone (Lemoine and Schoefs
2010). Fucoxanthin is the primary light harvesting carotenoid that efficiently
performs the energy transfer and plays a significant role in photoprotection and
antioxidation in algae. Fucoxanthin has shown activities of anti-proliferation and
prevention of cancer by inhibiting the cell cycle process (Kumar et al. 2013). Antiangiogenic effect of fucoxanthin has proven to prevent the development of cancer
343
destroys virus infected cells was observed (Park et al. 2010). Along with cell mediated immunity, astaxanthin has stimulated humoral immunity in murine model by
inducing production of polyclonal IgG and IgM antibodies (Jyonouchi et al. 1995;
Okai and Higashi-Okai 1996). Main pathological features of cardiovascular diseases
are reduced by the antioxidative properties of astaxanthin in experimental model
systems and humans. Thus, this pigment can be considered as latent agents for
cardiovascular atherosclerotic disease treatments (Fassett and Coombes 2011).
Antioxidants by inhibiting oxidative damage of the cells decrease their rate of
mutagenesis and carcinogenesis. In human tumors, cell to cell contact through gap
junction is decreased. Gap restoration junctions by elevating the connexin-43 protein
levels tend to decrease tumor cell progression. Natural carotenoids, specifically
canthaxanthin and astaxanthin, increased gap junctions in mouse embryo and human
skin fibroblasts (Hanusch et al. 1995; Daubrawa et al. 2005; Hix et al. 2004). Astaxanthin showed better anti-tumor activity by inhibiting the growth several tumor cells
(Palozza et al. 2009). Further studies showed that astaxanthin lead to cell death and
inhibited cell proliferation of mammary tumors in models of chemically induced
murine (Tanaka et al. 1995; Jyonouchi et al. 2000; Nakao et al. 2010). The peroxynitrite reaction with lutein and astaxanthin leads to the formation of Nitrolutein and
Nitroastaxanthin which are proved to possess enhanced anticancer properties as they
inhibited mouse skin papillomas (Maoka et al. 2012).
H. pluvialis extracts containing astaxanthin have been accepted as a supplement in
humans or animal diets and reduces the risk of various disorders (Kidd 2011; Yuan
et al. 2011). Dietary astaxanthin enhances the fish and shrimp immunity system
which eventually elevates their survival and growth. Additionally, it plays a crucial
part in the markets of feeds for aquaculture and livestock (Dufosse et al. 2005;
Cysewski and Todd 2004; Guerin et al. 2003). Further, Astaxanthin is utilized in
food, feed, nutraceutical, medical and cosmetic industries. In addition, market availability of astaxanthin in distinct powder and capsule forms reveals their enhanced
applications in food industries. The patented benefits of this algal pigment include its
use in preventing inflammation, cancer, bacterial infections, cardiovascular diseases,
improving brain functioning, and skin thickness.
14.3.6 Secondary Pigments, Essential Lipids, and Other
Pigments
The secondary pigments in algae include the secondary carotenoids such as fucoxanthin, canxanthin, cryptoxanthin, violaxanthin, and echinone (Lemoine and Schoefs
2010). Fucoxanthin is the primary light harvesting carotenoid that efficiently
performs the energy transfer and plays a significant role in photoprotection and
antioxidation in algae. Fucoxanthin has shown activities of anti-proliferation and
prevention of cancer by inhibiting the cell cycle process (Kumar et al. 2013). Antiangiogenic effect of fucoxanthin has proven to prevent the development of cancer