Viruses and Some Other Proven and Suspected Foodborne Biohazards 741
of human cases occurred in eastern Canada in 1988 following the consumption of mussels from
Prince Edward Island,
88 and there were 107 victims and three deaths. Since this episode, domoic
acid-producing diatoms have been found in other parts of the world. An ASP episode affected scallops
in northwest Spain in 1996.
69 The largest quantity of domoic acid was found in the hepatopancreas—
from 52% to 88% of the total.
69 During frozen storage, some domoic acid transferred to other parts
of the scallops. It was found that canning of scallops did not destroy this toxic principal. According
to Leira et al.,
69 the Canadian regulatory level is 20 µg/g of tissue for fresh bivalve mollusks.
Pfiesteria piscicida
This dinoflagellate was first recognized in the early 1990s as the cause of death of thousands of fish in
tributaries of the Chesapeake Bay. It is an animal-like organism that produces potent toxins. One toxin
stuns fish within a few seconds, and the animals die within a few minutes. It is heat stable. Another
toxin causes the fish epidermis to slough off. The dinoflagellate reproduces sexually after a fish kill,
and it can encyst.
The exact identity of the toxins is unclear, as are their effect on humans. Those who have been
exposed have a history of memory loss, confusion, acute skin burning, and usually general symptoms
such as headache, skin rash, muscle cramps, and the like.
19
REFERENCES
1. Abbott, S.L., R.P. Kokka, and J.M. Janda. 1991. Laboratory investigations on the low pathogenic potential of Plesiomonas
shigelloides. J. Clin. Microbiol. 29:148–153.
2. Albert, M.J., M. Ansaruzzaman, K.A. Talukder, A.K. Chopra, I. Kuhn, M. Rahman, A.S.G. Faruque, M.S. Islam, R.B.
Sack, and R. Mollby. 2000. Prevalence of enterotoxin genes in Aeromonas spp. isolated from children with diarrhea,
healthy controls, and the environment. J. Clin. Microbiol. 38:3785–3790.
3. Annapurna, E., and S.C. Sanyal. 1977. Enterotoxicity of Aeromonas hydrophila. J. Med. Microbiol. 10:317–323.
4. Appleton, H., and M.S. Pereira. 1977. A possible virus aetiology in outbreaks of food-poisoning from cockles. Lancet
1:780–781.
5. Atmar, R.L., F.H. Neill, J.L. Romalde, F. LeGuyader, C.M. Woodley T.G. Metcalf, and M.K. Estes. 1995. Detection of
Norwalk virus and hepatitis A virus in shellfish tissues with the PCR. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61:3014–3018.
6. Behling, A.R., and S.L. Taylor. 1982. Bacterial histamine production as a function of temperature and time of incubation.
J. Food Sci. 47:1311–1314, 1317.
7. Belay, E.D. 1999. Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies in humans. Ann. Rev. Microbiol. 53:283–314.
8. Blackwell, J.H., D. Rickansrud, P.D. McKercher, and J.W. McVicar. 1982. Effect of thermal processing on the survival
of foot-and-mouth disease virus in ground meat. J. Food Sci. 47:388–392.
9. Blanchfield, J.R. 1998. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)—A review. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 33:81–97.
10. Breeuwer, P., A. Lardeau, M. Peterz, and H.M. Joosten. 2003. Desiccation and heat tolerance of Enterobacter sakazakii.
J. Appl. Microbiol. 95:967–973.
11. Bruce, M.E., R.G. Will, J.W. Ironside, I. McConnell, D. Drummond, A.Suttie, L. McCardle, A. Chree, J. Hope, C. Birkett,
S. Cousens, H. Fraser, and C.J. Bostock. 1997. Transmissions to mice indicate that ‘new variant’ CJD is caused by the
BSE agent. Nature 389:498–501.
12. Buckley, J.T., and S.P. Howard. 1999. The cytotoxic enterotoxin of Aeromonas hydrophila is aerolysin. Infect. Immun.
67:466–467.
13. Burke, V., J. Robinson, H.M. Atkinson, and M. Gracey. 1982. Biochemical characteristics of enterotoxigenic Aeromonas
spp. J. Clin. Microbiol. 15:48–52.
14. Burke, V., J. Robinson, M. Cooper, J. Beamons, K. Partridge, D. Peterson, and M. Gracey. 1984. Biotyping and virulence
factors in clinical and environmental isolates of Aeromonas species. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 47:1146–1149.
15. Casolari, A. 1998. Heat resistance of prions and food processing. Food Microbiol. 15:59–63.
of human cases occurred in eastern Canada in 1988 following the consumption of mussels from
Prince Edward Island,
88 and there were 107 victims and three deaths. Since this episode, domoic
acid-producing diatoms have been found in other parts of the world. An ASP episode affected scallops
in northwest Spain in 1996.
69 The largest quantity of domoic acid was found in the hepatopancreas—
from 52% to 88% of the total.
69 During frozen storage, some domoic acid transferred to other parts
of the scallops. It was found that canning of scallops did not destroy this toxic principal. According
to Leira et al.,
69 the Canadian regulatory level is 20 µg/g of tissue for fresh bivalve mollusks.
Pfiesteria piscicida
This dinoflagellate was first recognized in the early 1990s as the cause of death of thousands of fish in
tributaries of the Chesapeake Bay. It is an animal-like organism that produces potent toxins. One toxin
stuns fish within a few seconds, and the animals die within a few minutes. It is heat stable. Another
toxin causes the fish epidermis to slough off. The dinoflagellate reproduces sexually after a fish kill,
and it can encyst.
The exact identity of the toxins is unclear, as are their effect on humans. Those who have been
exposed have a history of memory loss, confusion, acute skin burning, and usually general symptoms
such as headache, skin rash, muscle cramps, and the like.
19
REFERENCES
1. Abbott, S.L., R.P. Kokka, and J.M. Janda. 1991. Laboratory investigations on the low pathogenic potential of Plesiomonas
shigelloides. J. Clin. Microbiol. 29:148–153.
2. Albert, M.J., M. Ansaruzzaman, K.A. Talukder, A.K. Chopra, I. Kuhn, M. Rahman, A.S.G. Faruque, M.S. Islam, R.B.
Sack, and R. Mollby. 2000. Prevalence of enterotoxin genes in Aeromonas spp. isolated from children with diarrhea,
healthy controls, and the environment. J. Clin. Microbiol. 38:3785–3790.
3. Annapurna, E., and S.C. Sanyal. 1977. Enterotoxicity of Aeromonas hydrophila. J. Med. Microbiol. 10:317–323.
4. Appleton, H., and M.S. Pereira. 1977. A possible virus aetiology in outbreaks of food-poisoning from cockles. Lancet
1:780–781.
5. Atmar, R.L., F.H. Neill, J.L. Romalde, F. LeGuyader, C.M. Woodley T.G. Metcalf, and M.K. Estes. 1995. Detection of
Norwalk virus and hepatitis A virus in shellfish tissues with the PCR. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61:3014–3018.
6. Behling, A.R., and S.L. Taylor. 1982. Bacterial histamine production as a function of temperature and time of incubation.
J. Food Sci. 47:1311–1314, 1317.
7. Belay, E.D. 1999. Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies in humans. Ann. Rev. Microbiol. 53:283–314.
8. Blackwell, J.H., D. Rickansrud, P.D. McKercher, and J.W. McVicar. 1982. Effect of thermal processing on the survival
of foot-and-mouth disease virus in ground meat. J. Food Sci. 47:388–392.
9. Blanchfield, J.R. 1998. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)—A review. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 33:81–97.
10. Breeuwer, P., A. Lardeau, M. Peterz, and H.M. Joosten. 2003. Desiccation and heat tolerance of Enterobacter sakazakii.
J. Appl. Microbiol. 95:967–973.
11. Bruce, M.E., R.G. Will, J.W. Ironside, I. McConnell, D. Drummond, A.Suttie, L. McCardle, A. Chree, J. Hope, C. Birkett,
S. Cousens, H. Fraser, and C.J. Bostock. 1997. Transmissions to mice indicate that ‘new variant’ CJD is caused by the
BSE agent. Nature 389:498–501.
12. Buckley, J.T., and S.P. Howard. 1999. The cytotoxic enterotoxin of Aeromonas hydrophila is aerolysin. Infect. Immun.
67:466–467.
13. Burke, V., J. Robinson, H.M. Atkinson, and M. Gracey. 1982. Biochemical characteristics of enterotoxigenic Aeromonas
spp. J. Clin. Microbiol. 15:48–52.
14. Burke, V., J. Robinson, M. Cooper, J. Beamons, K. Partridge, D. Peterson, and M. Gracey. 1984. Biotyping and virulence
factors in clinical and environmental isolates of Aeromonas species. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 47:1146–1149.
15. Casolari, A. 1998. Heat resistance of prions and food processing. Food Microbiol. 15:59–63.