Ducey MJ (2009) Predicting crown size and shape from simple stand variables. J Sustain For
28:5–21
Duursma RA, Mäkelä A, Reid DEB et al (2010) Self-shading affects allometric scaling in trees.
Funct Ecol 24:723–730
Eloy C (2011) Leonardo’s rule, self-similarity, and wind-induced stresses in trees. Phys Rev Lett
107:258101
Eloy C, Fournier M, Lacointe A, Moulia B (2017) Wind loads and competition for light sculpt trees
into self-similar structures. Nat Commun 8:1014
Environment and Climate Change Canada, Government of Canada (2003) Canadian Wind Energy
Atlas. http://www.windatlas.ca/index-en.php. Accessed 28 Jan 2018
Farnsworth KD, Gardingen PR (1995) Allometric analysis of Sitka spruce branches: mechanical
versus hydraulic design principles. Trees 10:1–12
Farnsworth KD, Niklas KJ (1995) Theories of optimization, form and function in branching
architecture in plants. Funct Ecol 9:355–363
Fiora A, Cescatti A (2008) Vertical foliage distribution determines the radial pattern of sap flux
density in Picea abies. Tree Physiol 28:1317–1323
Fortin M, Schneider R, Saucier J-P (2013) Volume and error variance estimation using integrated
stem taper models. For Sci 59:345–358
Franceschini T, Schneider R (2014) Influence of shade tolerance and development stage on the
allometry of ten temperate tree species. Oecologia 176:739–749
Franceschini T, Martin-Ducup O, Schneider R (2016) Allometric exponents as a tool to study the
influence of climate on the trade-off between primary and secondary growth in major northeastern American tree species. Ann Bot 117:551–563
Garber SM, Maguire DA (2005) Vertical trends in maximum branch diameter in two mixed-species
spacing trials in the central Oregon Cascades. Can J For Res 35:295–307
Gardiner B, Berry P, Moulia B (2016) Wind impacts on plant growth, mechanics and damage. Plant
Sci 245:94–118
Gillooly JF, Brown JH, West GB et al (2001) Effects of size and temperature on metabolic rate.
Science 293:2248–2251
Goudiaby V, Brais S, Berninger F, Schneider R (2012) Vertical patterns in specific volume
increment along stems of dominant jack pine (Pinus banksiana) and black spruce (Picea
mariana) after thinning. Can J For Res 42:733–748
Groot A, Brown KM, Morrison IK, Barker JE (1984) A 10-year tree and stand response of jack pine
to urea fertilization and low thinning. Can J For Res 14:44–50
Huang J, Tardif JC, Bergeron Y et al (2010) Radial growth response of four dominant boreal tree
species to climate along a latitudinal gradient in the eastern Canadian boreal forest. Glob Change
Biol 16:711–731
Immanen J, Nieminen K, Smolander O-P et al (2016) Cytokinin and auxin display distinct but
interconnected distribution and signaling profiles to stimulate cambial activity. Curr Biol
26:1990–1997
James KR, Haritos N, Ades PK (2006) Mechanical stability of trees under dynamic loads. Am J Bot
93:1522–1530
Karlsson K (2000) Stem form and taper changes after thinning and nitrogen fertilization in Picea
abies and Pinus sylvestris stands. Scand J For Res 15:621–632
Kershaw JA Jr (2001) Influence of vertical foliage structure on the distribution of stem crosssectional area increment in western hemlock and balsam fir [For Sci 46(1): 86–94]. For Sci
47:117–118
Kershaw JA, Maguire DA (2000) Influence of vertical foliage structure on the distribution of stem
cross-sectional area increment in western hemlock and balsam fir. For Sci 46:86–94
King DA, Davies SJ, Tan S, Nur Supardi MN (2009) Trees approach gravitational limits to height in
tall lowland forests of Malaysia. Funct Ecol 23:284–291
Klos RJ, Wang GG, Dang Q-L, East EW (2007) Taper equations for five major commercial tree
species in Manitoba, Canada. West J Appl For 22:163–170
Understanding the Factors Influencing Stem Form with Modelling Tools
313
28:5–21
Duursma RA, Mäkelä A, Reid DEB et al (2010) Self-shading affects allometric scaling in trees.
Funct Ecol 24:723–730
Eloy C (2011) Leonardo’s rule, self-similarity, and wind-induced stresses in trees. Phys Rev Lett
107:258101
Eloy C, Fournier M, Lacointe A, Moulia B (2017) Wind loads and competition for light sculpt trees
into self-similar structures. Nat Commun 8:1014
Environment and Climate Change Canada, Government of Canada (2003) Canadian Wind Energy
Atlas. http://www.windatlas.ca/index-en.php. Accessed 28 Jan 2018
Farnsworth KD, Gardingen PR (1995) Allometric analysis of Sitka spruce branches: mechanical
versus hydraulic design principles. Trees 10:1–12
Farnsworth KD, Niklas KJ (1995) Theories of optimization, form and function in branching
architecture in plants. Funct Ecol 9:355–363
Fiora A, Cescatti A (2008) Vertical foliage distribution determines the radial pattern of sap flux
density in Picea abies. Tree Physiol 28:1317–1323
Fortin M, Schneider R, Saucier J-P (2013) Volume and error variance estimation using integrated
stem taper models. For Sci 59:345–358
Franceschini T, Schneider R (2014) Influence of shade tolerance and development stage on the
allometry of ten temperate tree species. Oecologia 176:739–749
Franceschini T, Martin-Ducup O, Schneider R (2016) Allometric exponents as a tool to study the
influence of climate on the trade-off between primary and secondary growth in major northeastern American tree species. Ann Bot 117:551–563
Garber SM, Maguire DA (2005) Vertical trends in maximum branch diameter in two mixed-species
spacing trials in the central Oregon Cascades. Can J For Res 35:295–307
Gardiner B, Berry P, Moulia B (2016) Wind impacts on plant growth, mechanics and damage. Plant
Sci 245:94–118
Gillooly JF, Brown JH, West GB et al (2001) Effects of size and temperature on metabolic rate.
Science 293:2248–2251
Goudiaby V, Brais S, Berninger F, Schneider R (2012) Vertical patterns in specific volume
increment along stems of dominant jack pine (Pinus banksiana) and black spruce (Picea
mariana) after thinning. Can J For Res 42:733–748
Groot A, Brown KM, Morrison IK, Barker JE (1984) A 10-year tree and stand response of jack pine
to urea fertilization and low thinning. Can J For Res 14:44–50
Huang J, Tardif JC, Bergeron Y et al (2010) Radial growth response of four dominant boreal tree
species to climate along a latitudinal gradient in the eastern Canadian boreal forest. Glob Change
Biol 16:711–731
Immanen J, Nieminen K, Smolander O-P et al (2016) Cytokinin and auxin display distinct but
interconnected distribution and signaling profiles to stimulate cambial activity. Curr Biol
26:1990–1997
James KR, Haritos N, Ades PK (2006) Mechanical stability of trees under dynamic loads. Am J Bot
93:1522–1530
Karlsson K (2000) Stem form and taper changes after thinning and nitrogen fertilization in Picea
abies and Pinus sylvestris stands. Scand J For Res 15:621–632
Kershaw JA Jr (2001) Influence of vertical foliage structure on the distribution of stem crosssectional area increment in western hemlock and balsam fir [For Sci 46(1): 86–94]. For Sci
47:117–118
Kershaw JA, Maguire DA (2000) Influence of vertical foliage structure on the distribution of stem
cross-sectional area increment in western hemlock and balsam fir. For Sci 46:86–94
King DA, Davies SJ, Tan S, Nur Supardi MN (2009) Trees approach gravitational limits to height in
tall lowland forests of Malaysia. Funct Ecol 23:284–291
Klos RJ, Wang GG, Dang Q-L, East EW (2007) Taper equations for five major commercial tree
species in Manitoba, Canada. West J Appl For 22:163–170
Understanding the Factors Influencing Stem Form with Modelling Tools
313