Searchinger TD, Estes L, Thornton PK, Beringer T, Notenbaert A, Rubenstein D, Heimlich R,
Licker R, Herrero M (2015) High carbon and biodiversity costs from converting Africa’s wet
savannahs to cropland. Nat Clim Chang 5:481–486
Shanahan TM, McKay NP, Hughen KA, Overpeck JT, Otto-Bliesner B, Heil CW, King J, Scholz
CA, Peck J (2015) The time-transgressive termination of the African Humid Period. Nat Geosci
8:140–144
Sodhi NS, Posa MRC, Lee TM, Bickford D, Koh LP, Brook BW (2010) The state and conservation
of Southeast Asian biodiversity. Biodivers Conserv 19:317–328
Sonwa DJ, Walker S, Nasi R, Kanninen M (2011) Potential synergies of the main current forestry
efforts and climate change mitigation in Central Africa. Sustain Sci 6:59–67
Spracklen D, Baker J, Garcia-Carreras L, Marsham J (2018) The effects of tropical vegetation on
rainfall. Annu Rev Environ Resour 43:193–218
Staver AC (2018) Prediction and scale in savanna ecosystems. New Phytol 219:52–57
Staver AC, Bond WJ (2014) Is there a ‘browse trap’? Dynamics of herbivore impacts on trees and
grasses in an African savanna. J Ecol 102:595–602
Staver AC, Levin SA (2012) Integrating theoretical climate and fire effects on savanna and forest
systems. Am Nat 180:211
Staver AC, Archibald S, Levin S (2011a) Tree cover in sub-Saharan Africa: rainfall and fire
constrain forest and savanna as alternative stable states. Ecology 92:1063–1072
Staver AC, Archibald S, Levin SA (2011b) The global extent and determinants of savanna and
forest as alternative biome states. Science 334:230–232
Stevens N, Lehmann CE, Murphy BP, Durigan G (2017) Savanna woody encroachment is
widespread across three continents. Glob Chang Biol 23:235–244
Swaine M, Hall J (1988) The mosaic theory of forest regeneration and the determination of forest
composition in Ghana. J Trop Ecol 4:253–269
ter Steege H, Pitman NC, Killeen TJ, Laurance WF, Peres CA, Guevara JE, Salomão RP, Castilho
CV, Amaral IL, de Almeida Matos FD (2015) Estimating the global conservation status of more
than 15,000 Amazonian tree species. Sci Adv 1:e1500936
Terborgh J, Nuñez-Iturri G, Pitman NC, Valverde FHC, Alvarez P, Swamy V, Pringle EG, Paine C
(2008) Tree recruitment in an empty forest. Ecology 89:1757–1768
Tovar C, Breman E, Brncic T, Harris DJ, Bailey R, Willis KJ (2014) Influence of 1100 years of
burning on the central African rainforest. Ecography 37:1139–1148
Tranquilli S, Abedi-Lartey M, Abernethy K, Amsini F, Asamoah A, Balangtaa C, Blake S,
Bouanga E, Breuer T, Brncic TM (2014) Protected areas in tropical Africa: assessing threats
and conservation activities. PLoS One 9:e114154
Van Gemerden BS, Olff H, Parren MP, Bongers F (2003) The pristine rain forest? Remnants of
historical human impacts on current tree species composition and diversity. J Biogeogr
30:1381–1390
Van Reybrouck D (2012) Congo, une histoire. Éditions Actes Sud
Van Vuuren DP, Edmonds J, Kainuma M, Riahi K, Thomson A, Hibbard K, Hurtt GC, Kram T,
Krey V, Lamarque J-F (2011) The representative concentration pathways: an overview. Clim
Chang 109:5–31
Veldman JW (2016) Clarifying the confusion: old-growth savannahs and tropical ecosystem
degradation. Philos Trans R Soc B 371:20150306
Veldman JW, Buisson E, Durigan G, Fernandes GW, Le Stradic S, Mahy G, Negreiros D, Overbeck
GE, Veldman RG, Zaloumis NP (2015a) Toward an old-growth concept for grasslands,
savannas, and woodlands. Front Ecol Environ 13:154–162
Veldman JW, Overbeck GE, Negreiros D, Mahy G, Le Stradic S, Fernandes GW, Durigan G,
Buisson E, Putz FE, Bond WJ (2015b) Tyranny of trees in grassy biomes. Science (New York,
NY) 347:484
Veldman JW, Overbeck GE, Negreiros D, Mahy G, Le Stradic S, Fernandes GW, Durigan G,
Buisson E, Putz FE, Bond WJ (2015c) Where tree planting and forest expansion are bad for
biodiversity and ecosystem services. Bioscience 65:1011–1018
314
J. C. Aleman and A. Fayolle
Licker R, Herrero M (2015) High carbon and biodiversity costs from converting Africa’s wet
savannahs to cropland. Nat Clim Chang 5:481–486
Shanahan TM, McKay NP, Hughen KA, Overpeck JT, Otto-Bliesner B, Heil CW, King J, Scholz
CA, Peck J (2015) The time-transgressive termination of the African Humid Period. Nat Geosci
8:140–144
Sodhi NS, Posa MRC, Lee TM, Bickford D, Koh LP, Brook BW (2010) The state and conservation
of Southeast Asian biodiversity. Biodivers Conserv 19:317–328
Sonwa DJ, Walker S, Nasi R, Kanninen M (2011) Potential synergies of the main current forestry
efforts and climate change mitigation in Central Africa. Sustain Sci 6:59–67
Spracklen D, Baker J, Garcia-Carreras L, Marsham J (2018) The effects of tropical vegetation on
rainfall. Annu Rev Environ Resour 43:193–218
Staver AC (2018) Prediction and scale in savanna ecosystems. New Phytol 219:52–57
Staver AC, Bond WJ (2014) Is there a ‘browse trap’? Dynamics of herbivore impacts on trees and
grasses in an African savanna. J Ecol 102:595–602
Staver AC, Levin SA (2012) Integrating theoretical climate and fire effects on savanna and forest
systems. Am Nat 180:211
Staver AC, Archibald S, Levin S (2011a) Tree cover in sub-Saharan Africa: rainfall and fire
constrain forest and savanna as alternative stable states. Ecology 92:1063–1072
Staver AC, Archibald S, Levin SA (2011b) The global extent and determinants of savanna and
forest as alternative biome states. Science 334:230–232
Stevens N, Lehmann CE, Murphy BP, Durigan G (2017) Savanna woody encroachment is
widespread across three continents. Glob Chang Biol 23:235–244
Swaine M, Hall J (1988) The mosaic theory of forest regeneration and the determination of forest
composition in Ghana. J Trop Ecol 4:253–269
ter Steege H, Pitman NC, Killeen TJ, Laurance WF, Peres CA, Guevara JE, Salomão RP, Castilho
CV, Amaral IL, de Almeida Matos FD (2015) Estimating the global conservation status of more
than 15,000 Amazonian tree species. Sci Adv 1:e1500936
Terborgh J, Nuñez-Iturri G, Pitman NC, Valverde FHC, Alvarez P, Swamy V, Pringle EG, Paine C
(2008) Tree recruitment in an empty forest. Ecology 89:1757–1768
Tovar C, Breman E, Brncic T, Harris DJ, Bailey R, Willis KJ (2014) Influence of 1100 years of
burning on the central African rainforest. Ecography 37:1139–1148
Tranquilli S, Abedi-Lartey M, Abernethy K, Amsini F, Asamoah A, Balangtaa C, Blake S,
Bouanga E, Breuer T, Brncic TM (2014) Protected areas in tropical Africa: assessing threats
and conservation activities. PLoS One 9:e114154
Van Gemerden BS, Olff H, Parren MP, Bongers F (2003) The pristine rain forest? Remnants of
historical human impacts on current tree species composition and diversity. J Biogeogr
30:1381–1390
Van Reybrouck D (2012) Congo, une histoire. Éditions Actes Sud
Van Vuuren DP, Edmonds J, Kainuma M, Riahi K, Thomson A, Hibbard K, Hurtt GC, Kram T,
Krey V, Lamarque J-F (2011) The representative concentration pathways: an overview. Clim
Chang 109:5–31
Veldman JW (2016) Clarifying the confusion: old-growth savannahs and tropical ecosystem
degradation. Philos Trans R Soc B 371:20150306
Veldman JW, Buisson E, Durigan G, Fernandes GW, Le Stradic S, Mahy G, Negreiros D, Overbeck
GE, Veldman RG, Zaloumis NP (2015a) Toward an old-growth concept for grasslands,
savannas, and woodlands. Front Ecol Environ 13:154–162
Veldman JW, Overbeck GE, Negreiros D, Mahy G, Le Stradic S, Fernandes GW, Durigan G,
Buisson E, Putz FE, Bond WJ (2015b) Tyranny of trees in grassy biomes. Science (New York,
NY) 347:484
Veldman JW, Overbeck GE, Negreiros D, Mahy G, Le Stradic S, Fernandes GW, Durigan G,
Buisson E, Putz FE, Bond WJ (2015c) Where tree planting and forest expansion are bad for
biodiversity and ecosystem services. Bioscience 65:1011–1018
314
J. C. Aleman and A. Fayolle