also contain hydrolitic enzymes that catalyze the breakdown of cellulose materials
into simpler monosaccharides (Radek 1999).
In 1923, the same year that Ivan Wallin publishes his work on The mitochondria
problem emphasizing the bacterial symbiotic origin of these organelles (Wallin
1923), Lamuel Roscoe Cleveland (1892–1969) an American protozoologist
published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences the article
“Symbiosis between termites and their intestinal protozoa,”, referring for the first
time to the symbiotic nature of the intestinal flagellates of termites and demonstrating that a mutualistic relationship between endosymbiotic microorganisms and their
metazoan host was present (Cleveland 1923).
The presence of these symbionts in the termites’ complex symbiotic system helps
us to understand the evolutionary history of these eusocial insects and the reason
why they can be considered one of the most successful groups of insects on Earth
(Evangelista et al. 2019).
27.4 Concluding Remarks
Our planet is the stage of a multi-dimensional symbiotic world, where biological
systems are related to non-biological ones establishing associations and connections
to form a global and holistic web of life. It is in this dynamic scenario that
antagonistic forces of nature coexist allowing the development and evolution of
life. In this context, the dynamics of biological processes are mainly characterized,
not by the isolation of characteristics from other life forms but by the integration of
those biological capacities into the organism’s evolution. We must believe and
understand that one of the main characteristics of biological systems is that they
establish associations or connections and biotic communication with other organisms. This manifestation is one of the main evolutionary drivers which creates and
sustains the diversity of life. In some ways, life has not established or developed to
exist alone but only exists together with its symbionts, and this is the main rule for
success in the web of life. It is in this evolutive scenario that symbiotic associations
develop, and the symbionts’ role is effective.
Associated with this symbiotic approach to understanding the biological world,
there needs to be a new concept of what represents an organism. This concept is
important in the sense that eukaryote organisms are not genetically unique entities,
and the concept of individual must be seen as a complex biological ecosystem,
composed of multiple interdependent parts living symbiotically. It is also a challenge
for the species concept in the traditional genetic point of view, which must adapt to
this new reality. This biological complex forms a superorganism, a symbiome or
holobiont entity, which shares information at multilevels and creates the ability for
the organism, as a whole, to evolve and adapt to new conditions (Carrapiço 2006,
2012; Guerrero et al. 2013; Sapp 2003; Suárez and Triviño 2019). This idea
reinforces the principle that all individuals of a species contain associated bacterial
and virus populations that collectively act in determining the phenotype. In some
27 The Importance of Being Symbiont and the Role of Symbiosis as a Driving Force. . .
607
into simpler monosaccharides (Radek 1999).
In 1923, the same year that Ivan Wallin publishes his work on The mitochondria
problem emphasizing the bacterial symbiotic origin of these organelles (Wallin
1923), Lamuel Roscoe Cleveland (1892–1969) an American protozoologist
published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences the article
“Symbiosis between termites and their intestinal protozoa,”, referring for the first
time to the symbiotic nature of the intestinal flagellates of termites and demonstrating that a mutualistic relationship between endosymbiotic microorganisms and their
metazoan host was present (Cleveland 1923).
The presence of these symbionts in the termites’ complex symbiotic system helps
us to understand the evolutionary history of these eusocial insects and the reason
why they can be considered one of the most successful groups of insects on Earth
(Evangelista et al. 2019).
27.4 Concluding Remarks
Our planet is the stage of a multi-dimensional symbiotic world, where biological
systems are related to non-biological ones establishing associations and connections
to form a global and holistic web of life. It is in this dynamic scenario that
antagonistic forces of nature coexist allowing the development and evolution of
life. In this context, the dynamics of biological processes are mainly characterized,
not by the isolation of characteristics from other life forms but by the integration of
those biological capacities into the organism’s evolution. We must believe and
understand that one of the main characteristics of biological systems is that they
establish associations or connections and biotic communication with other organisms. This manifestation is one of the main evolutionary drivers which creates and
sustains the diversity of life. In some ways, life has not established or developed to
exist alone but only exists together with its symbionts, and this is the main rule for
success in the web of life. It is in this evolutive scenario that symbiotic associations
develop, and the symbionts’ role is effective.
Associated with this symbiotic approach to understanding the biological world,
there needs to be a new concept of what represents an organism. This concept is
important in the sense that eukaryote organisms are not genetically unique entities,
and the concept of individual must be seen as a complex biological ecosystem,
composed of multiple interdependent parts living symbiotically. It is also a challenge
for the species concept in the traditional genetic point of view, which must adapt to
this new reality. This biological complex forms a superorganism, a symbiome or
holobiont entity, which shares information at multilevels and creates the ability for
the organism, as a whole, to evolve and adapt to new conditions (Carrapiço 2006,
2012; Guerrero et al. 2013; Sapp 2003; Suárez and Triviño 2019). This idea
reinforces the principle that all individuals of a species contain associated bacterial
and virus populations that collectively act in determining the phenotype. In some
27 The Importance of Being Symbiont and the Role of Symbiosis as a Driving Force. . .
607