Figures
2.1
Structure of the Earth
20
2.2
Plate structure of the Earth and seismically active zones
22
2.3
The mountain-forming events in Europe
25
2.4
Stages in the development of an unconformity
26
2.5
Gradation of clay and sand to laterite
29
2.6
Slope development
32
2.7
Drainage patterns
33
2.8
Deposition of sand and formation of an estuarine sand bar
35
2.9
The development of a sea cliff, wave-cut platform, and wave-built terrace
37
2.10
Average amount of solar radiation reaching the ground surface
39
2.11
Absorption, reflection, and utilization of solar energy
40
2.12
The greenhouse effect
45
2.13
Anticipated changes in concentration of three greenhouse gases
47
2.14
IPCC estimates of climate change if atmospheric CO
2
doubles
48
2.15
Structure of the atmosphere
52
2.16
Chemical composition of the atmosphere with height
55
2.17
Seasons and the Earth’s orbit
56
2.18
General circulation of the atmosphere
58
2.19
The development of cells in jet streams and high-level westerlies
58
2.20
Weather changes associated with El Niño-Southern Oscillation events
60
2.21
Ocean currents
62
2.22
Formation of cloud at a front
67
2.23
Distribution of cloud around frontal systems
67
2.24
Parts of the Earth covered by ice at some time during the past 2 million years
70
2.25
Temperature changes since the last glacial maximum
71
2.26
Orbital stretch
77
2.27
Wobble of the Earth’s axis
77
2.28
Variations in axial tilt (obliquity of the ecliptic)
78
2.29
World climate types
82
2.30
Floristic regions
84
3.1
Water abstraction
91
3.2
Principal cities bordering the Rhine
93
3.3
The Rhine basin, draining land in six countries
94
3.4
The life cycle of a lake
98
3.5
Evolution of a lake into dry land, marsh, or bog
99
3.6
Multistage flash evaporation
102
3.7
Mole drainage
105
3.8
Saltwater intrusion into a freshwater aquifer
108
3.9
Soil drainage
108
3.10
Profile of a typical fertile soil
109
3.11
Flood plain development from meander system
114
3.12
Modern soil developed over flood plain alluvium and glacial till
114
List of Figures / vii
2.1
Structure of the Earth
20
2.2
Plate structure of the Earth and seismically active zones
22
2.3
The mountain-forming events in Europe
25
2.4
Stages in the development of an unconformity
26
2.5
Gradation of clay and sand to laterite
29
2.6
Slope development
32
2.7
Drainage patterns
33
2.8
Deposition of sand and formation of an estuarine sand bar
35
2.9
The development of a sea cliff, wave-cut platform, and wave-built terrace
37
2.10
Average amount of solar radiation reaching the ground surface
39
2.11
Absorption, reflection, and utilization of solar energy
40
2.12
The greenhouse effect
45
2.13
Anticipated changes in concentration of three greenhouse gases
47
2.14
IPCC estimates of climate change if atmospheric CO
2
doubles
48
2.15
Structure of the atmosphere
52
2.16
Chemical composition of the atmosphere with height
55
2.17
Seasons and the Earth’s orbit
56
2.18
General circulation of the atmosphere
58
2.19
The development of cells in jet streams and high-level westerlies
58
2.20
Weather changes associated with El Niño-Southern Oscillation events
60
2.21
Ocean currents
62
2.22
Formation of cloud at a front
67
2.23
Distribution of cloud around frontal systems
67
2.24
Parts of the Earth covered by ice at some time during the past 2 million years
70
2.25
Temperature changes since the last glacial maximum
71
2.26
Orbital stretch
77
2.27
Wobble of the Earth’s axis
77
2.28
Variations in axial tilt (obliquity of the ecliptic)
78
2.29
World climate types
82
2.30
Floristic regions
84
3.1
Water abstraction
91
3.2
Principal cities bordering the Rhine
93
3.3
The Rhine basin, draining land in six countries
94
3.4
The life cycle of a lake
98
3.5
Evolution of a lake into dry land, marsh, or bog
99
3.6
Multistage flash evaporation
102
3.7
Mole drainage
105
3.8
Saltwater intrusion into a freshwater aquifer
108
3.9
Soil drainage
108
3.10
Profile of a typical fertile soil
109
3.11
Flood plain development from meander system
114
3.12
Modern soil developed over flood plain alluvium and glacial till
114
List of Figures / vii