65
pneumoniae, and Salmonella species as the most common pathogens (Tornimbene
et al. 2018). Another report from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development (OECD) described antimicrobial resistance as “the biggest threat to
modern medicine” and estimated that infections caused by drug resistant bacteria
have potential to kill 2.4 million people in Europe, North America, and Australia by
2050 (OECD 2018) (Table 3.1). In United States, estimated 2.8 million antibiotic
resistant infections occur each year which results in 35,000 deaths (CDC, 2019).
The deaths of ten million lives were forecasted in Sir Jim O’Neill’s review report,
further highlighting the urgent need of a global surveillance system adopting specific measures to reduce or tackle the threat (O’Neill 2016a). The menace of antimicrobial resistance can be estimated by the fact that the common infections have now
become hard to treat (Argudín et al. 2017). Chokshi and co-workers identified various types of contributing factors including socio economic for antimicrobial resistance between high income and low middle income countries. The key contributors
in developing countries were lack of surveillance of resistance development, poor
quality of available antibiotics, clinical misuse, and ease of availability of antibiotics. While in developed nations, poor hospital level regulation and excessive antibiotic use in food producing animals are the mainstream contributing factors of
antibiotic resistance (Chokshi et al. 2019). It has been estimated that 73% of globally sold antimicrobials are used in food producing animals further supporting the
claim that the rise in antibiotic resistant infections in animals and as well in humans
is due to prophylactic and growth promotion usage of antibiotics (Van Boeckel et al.
2019). A study further highlighted the issue of antimicrobial resistance calling the
multifactorial threats of antimicrobial resistance aiding in the development of complex issues of costs and implications to combat antibiotic resistance (Dadgostar 2019).
3.3 Climate Change
Climate change is a phenomenon of a long term shift in global or regional climate
patterns and its effects are felt both globally and locally. Effective health adaptation
strategies are largely dependent upon the current health status of population. Indeed,
this is often one of the most significant factors in determining the health impacts of
climate change (Chan 2017; Hodson 2017). Potential catastrophic climate change
has been witnessed due to rising greenhouse gases, deforestation and intensive food
animal production for meat consumption (Ripple et al. 2017). The major focus
resides on the policy shifting from economic growth to conservational economy,
making anthropogenic activities to work more holistically to control the climate
change (Ripple et al. 2018). However, there is still a lack of much knowledge about
the connections between microorganisms and anthropogenic climate change.
3 Antimicrobial Resistance, Food Systems and Climate Change
pneumoniae, and Salmonella species as the most common pathogens (Tornimbene
et al. 2018). Another report from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development (OECD) described antimicrobial resistance as “the biggest threat to
modern medicine” and estimated that infections caused by drug resistant bacteria
have potential to kill 2.4 million people in Europe, North America, and Australia by
2050 (OECD 2018) (Table 3.1). In United States, estimated 2.8 million antibiotic
resistant infections occur each year which results in 35,000 deaths (CDC, 2019).
The deaths of ten million lives were forecasted in Sir Jim O’Neill’s review report,
further highlighting the urgent need of a global surveillance system adopting specific measures to reduce or tackle the threat (O’Neill 2016a). The menace of antimicrobial resistance can be estimated by the fact that the common infections have now
become hard to treat (Argudín et al. 2017). Chokshi and co-workers identified various types of contributing factors including socio economic for antimicrobial resistance between high income and low middle income countries. The key contributors
in developing countries were lack of surveillance of resistance development, poor
quality of available antibiotics, clinical misuse, and ease of availability of antibiotics. While in developed nations, poor hospital level regulation and excessive antibiotic use in food producing animals are the mainstream contributing factors of
antibiotic resistance (Chokshi et al. 2019). It has been estimated that 73% of globally sold antimicrobials are used in food producing animals further supporting the
claim that the rise in antibiotic resistant infections in animals and as well in humans
is due to prophylactic and growth promotion usage of antibiotics (Van Boeckel et al.
2019). A study further highlighted the issue of antimicrobial resistance calling the
multifactorial threats of antimicrobial resistance aiding in the development of complex issues of costs and implications to combat antibiotic resistance (Dadgostar 2019).
3.3 Climate Change
Climate change is a phenomenon of a long term shift in global or regional climate
patterns and its effects are felt both globally and locally. Effective health adaptation
strategies are largely dependent upon the current health status of population. Indeed,
this is often one of the most significant factors in determining the health impacts of
climate change (Chan 2017; Hodson 2017). Potential catastrophic climate change
has been witnessed due to rising greenhouse gases, deforestation and intensive food
animal production for meat consumption (Ripple et al. 2017). The major focus
resides on the policy shifting from economic growth to conservational economy,
making anthropogenic activities to work more holistically to control the climate
change (Ripple et al. 2018). However, there is still a lack of much knowledge about
the connections between microorganisms and anthropogenic climate change.
3 Antimicrobial Resistance, Food Systems and Climate Change