43
synchronization of international initiatives to contain use of antimicrobial agents
(WHO 2017).
Well designed research is required to trace out the cause of resistance development within and among the species of bacterial pathogens, enteric commensals and
environmental bacteria and their ecological niches (O’Neill 2016). To curb the use
of antimicrobials in animals, further research is required for suitable cost effective
substitutes to antimicrobials for prevention of disease and improvement of growth
and production efficiency (Aarestrup et al. 2008). Targeted research is necessary to
sustain antimicrobial stewardship, like; better tools for diagnosis, different methods
to develop prescribing of antimicrobial and consumption behaviours (O’Neill 2016).
2.8 Surveillance Systems in Animals
2.8.1 Livestock
Antimicrobial resistance is a global threat for animal and human health. The rampant use of antibiotics in animal production is of particular concern, as this may lead
to escalated resistance of animal and human pathogens (Schrijver et al. 2018; Van
De Sande-Bruinsma 2008). The European Medicines Authority prepares annual
reports on the sales of veterinary antimicrobial products for 29 EU/European
Economic Area countries. A report of 2016 from 25 countries observed an increase
in sales of more than 5% in six countries. The association between the use of antibiotic in animals and resistance development in commensal bacteria has been
described in E. coli (Chantziaras et al. 2014). The transmission of resistant bacteria
from food producing animals to humans is of even more concern. Another study
showed many genetic resemblances between extended spectrum beta lactamase
(ESBL) positive isolates of E. coli from humans and poultry (Leverstein-van et al.
2011). Besides, the fact that resistance may be transmitted horizontally among dissimilar bacteria by exchange of antimicrobial resistance genes in the form of plasmids creates an even greater threat for public health (Carattoli 2013).
Due to high antibiotic usage in animals and intensive farming, transfer of antimicrobial resistance from livestock to humans is a major risk today. Therefore, global
research and laboratory surveillance networks are crucial for early detection of
increasing resistance patterns for continuous detection of antimicrobial resistance in
bacteria that pose risks to humans and animals across the world. Various countries
have set up national monitoring systems, most of them are targeting zoonotic and
indicator bacteria (Directive 2003/99/EC; EU Decision 2013/652/EU). A private
industry funded organization, the Centre Europeen d’Etudes pour la Sante Animale
(CEESA), implements antimicrobial resistance surveillance programmes in the
food producing animals of European Union (De Jong et al. 2013, 2014). However,
antibiotics and bacteria of veterinary and human interest vary, and depending on the
purpose, veterinary surveillance programmes cannot essentially include bacteria of
2 Global Surveillance Programs on Antimicrobial Resistance
synchronization of international initiatives to contain use of antimicrobial agents
(WHO 2017).
Well designed research is required to trace out the cause of resistance development within and among the species of bacterial pathogens, enteric commensals and
environmental bacteria and their ecological niches (O’Neill 2016). To curb the use
of antimicrobials in animals, further research is required for suitable cost effective
substitutes to antimicrobials for prevention of disease and improvement of growth
and production efficiency (Aarestrup et al. 2008). Targeted research is necessary to
sustain antimicrobial stewardship, like; better tools for diagnosis, different methods
to develop prescribing of antimicrobial and consumption behaviours (O’Neill 2016).
2.8 Surveillance Systems in Animals
2.8.1 Livestock
Antimicrobial resistance is a global threat for animal and human health. The rampant use of antibiotics in animal production is of particular concern, as this may lead
to escalated resistance of animal and human pathogens (Schrijver et al. 2018; Van
De Sande-Bruinsma 2008). The European Medicines Authority prepares annual
reports on the sales of veterinary antimicrobial products for 29 EU/European
Economic Area countries. A report of 2016 from 25 countries observed an increase
in sales of more than 5% in six countries. The association between the use of antibiotic in animals and resistance development in commensal bacteria has been
described in E. coli (Chantziaras et al. 2014). The transmission of resistant bacteria
from food producing animals to humans is of even more concern. Another study
showed many genetic resemblances between extended spectrum beta lactamase
(ESBL) positive isolates of E. coli from humans and poultry (Leverstein-van et al.
2011). Besides, the fact that resistance may be transmitted horizontally among dissimilar bacteria by exchange of antimicrobial resistance genes in the form of plasmids creates an even greater threat for public health (Carattoli 2013).
Due to high antibiotic usage in animals and intensive farming, transfer of antimicrobial resistance from livestock to humans is a major risk today. Therefore, global
research and laboratory surveillance networks are crucial for early detection of
increasing resistance patterns for continuous detection of antimicrobial resistance in
bacteria that pose risks to humans and animals across the world. Various countries
have set up national monitoring systems, most of them are targeting zoonotic and
indicator bacteria (Directive 2003/99/EC; EU Decision 2013/652/EU). A private
industry funded organization, the Centre Europeen d’Etudes pour la Sante Animale
(CEESA), implements antimicrobial resistance surveillance programmes in the
food producing animals of European Union (De Jong et al. 2013, 2014). However,
antibiotics and bacteria of veterinary and human interest vary, and depending on the
purpose, veterinary surveillance programmes cannot essentially include bacteria of
2 Global Surveillance Programs on Antimicrobial Resistance