3.4
Air–Sea Fluxes from Satellite Data
173
W. Timothy Liu and Kristina B. Katsaros
3.4.1 Forcing the ocean
173
3.4.2 Bulk parameterization
173
3.4.3 Wind forcing
174
3.4.4 Thermal forcing
177
3.4.5 Hydrologic forcing
179
3.4.6 Future prospects
179
3.5
Developing the WOCE Global Data System
181
Eric J. Lindstrom and David M. Legler
3.5.1 Organization and planning for WOCE data systems
181
3.5.2 Elements of the WOCE Data System
185
3.5.3 The WOCE Global Data Set and future developments
189
Section 4: The Global Flow Field
Section 4 plates appear between pages 300 and 301
4.1
The World Ocean Surface Circulation
193
Peter Niiler
4.1.1 Background
193
4.1.2 Methodology
195
4.1.3 The global mean velocity and velocity variance
198
4.1.4 The wind-driven Ekman currents
201
4.1.5 Future global circulation observations
203
4.2
The Interior Circulation of the Ocean
205
D. J. Webb and N. Suginohara
4.2.1 Processes in the ocean interior
205
4.2.2 Observational evidence
206
4.2.3 Theory of gyre-scale circulation
209
4.2.4 The abyssal circulation
211
4.2.5 Conclusions
213
4.3
The Tropical Ocean Circulation
215
J. S. Godfrey, G. C. Johnson, M. J. McPhaden, G. Reverdin and Susan E. Wijffels
4.3.1 Flow and water mass transformation patterns
215
4.3.2 Equatorial phenomena in the Pacific Ocean
216
4.3.3 Equatorial Atlantic
226
4.3.4 Near-equatorial circulation in the Indian Ocean
233
4.3.5 Overall conclusions
245
4.4
Tropical–Extratropical Oceanic Exchange Pathways
247
Zhengyu Liu and S. G. H. Philander
4.4.1 The role of diffusion and advection
247
4.4.2 Tropical–subtropical exchanges of thermocline waters
248
4.4.3 Tropical–subpolar exchange of Intermediate Waters
252
4.4.4 Summary and further issues
254
CONTENTS
vii
Air–Sea Fluxes from Satellite Data
173
W. Timothy Liu and Kristina B. Katsaros
3.4.1 Forcing the ocean
173
3.4.2 Bulk parameterization
173
3.4.3 Wind forcing
174
3.4.4 Thermal forcing
177
3.4.5 Hydrologic forcing
179
3.4.6 Future prospects
179
3.5
Developing the WOCE Global Data System
181
Eric J. Lindstrom and David M. Legler
3.5.1 Organization and planning for WOCE data systems
181
3.5.2 Elements of the WOCE Data System
185
3.5.3 The WOCE Global Data Set and future developments
189
Section 4: The Global Flow Field
Section 4 plates appear between pages 300 and 301
4.1
The World Ocean Surface Circulation
193
Peter Niiler
4.1.1 Background
193
4.1.2 Methodology
195
4.1.3 The global mean velocity and velocity variance
198
4.1.4 The wind-driven Ekman currents
201
4.1.5 Future global circulation observations
203
4.2
The Interior Circulation of the Ocean
205
D. J. Webb and N. Suginohara
4.2.1 Processes in the ocean interior
205
4.2.2 Observational evidence
206
4.2.3 Theory of gyre-scale circulation
209
4.2.4 The abyssal circulation
211
4.2.5 Conclusions
213
4.3
The Tropical Ocean Circulation
215
J. S. Godfrey, G. C. Johnson, M. J. McPhaden, G. Reverdin and Susan E. Wijffels
4.3.1 Flow and water mass transformation patterns
215
4.3.2 Equatorial phenomena in the Pacific Ocean
216
4.3.3 Equatorial Atlantic
226
4.3.4 Near-equatorial circulation in the Indian Ocean
233
4.3.5 Overall conclusions
245
4.4
Tropical–Extratropical Oceanic Exchange Pathways
247
Zhengyu Liu and S. G. H. Philander
4.4.1 The role of diffusion and advection
247
4.4.2 Tropical–subtropical exchanges of thermocline waters
248
4.4.3 Tropical–subpolar exchange of Intermediate Waters
252
4.4.4 Summary and further issues
254
CONTENTS
vii