Global observation systems 5, 8–9, 49,
50, 52–55, 590
early programmes 32, 33
ongoing maintenance 58
WHP (WOCE Hydrographic
Programme) 100–101
WOCE planning 37
Global Ocean Data Assimilation
Experiment see GODAE
Global Ocean Ecosystem Dynamics
see GLOBEC
Global Ocean Observing System
see GOOS
Global Positioning System see GPS
Global Precipitation Climatology Project
see GPCP
Global Temperature–Salinity Pilot Project
see GTSPP
Global warming see Climate change,
anthropogenic
GLOBEC (Global Ocean Ecosystem
Dynamics) 43
GLONASS 113
GOCE (Gravity Field and Steady-State
Ocean Circulation Explorer) 143,
147, 171
GODAE (Global Ocean Data
Assimilation Experiment) 5, 8, 9,
190, 545, 587, 589, 592,
597–600, 601
components 599–600
outputs 600
phases 600
rationale 598–599
GOOS (Global Ocean Observing System)
9, 35, 40, 43, 190, 526, 586, 587,
588, 592
Climate Module 588
GPCP (Global Precipitation Climatology
Project) 179
GPS (Global Positioning System) 111,
112–113, 138, 171
Differential GPS 113
heading uncertainty reduction 113–114
interior circulation studies 208
lowered ADCP systems 116
position accuracy 113
SA (Selective Availability)/SPS
(Standard Positioning Service) 113
WOCE planning 37
GRACE (Gravity Recovery and Climate
Experiment) 143, 147, 171
Gravity Field and Steady-State Ocean
Circulation Explorer see GOCE
Gravity Recovery and Climate
Experiment see GRACE
Great Australian Bight 305
Great salinity anomaly 399
Great Whirl 240, 242
Greenhouse gas concentrations 7, 12, 26,
79
coupled ocean–atmosphere models 93,
94, 94
Greenland Currents 389, 390
Greenland, palaeoclimate records 26–27,
26
Greenland Sea 6, 567
changes during WOCE 569
cooling warming cycle 570–571, 570
deep convection 21, 387, 399
thermohaline fluxes 306
Greenland Sea Deep Water see GSDW
Greenland Sea Surface Water see GSSW
Greenland–Iceland–Scotland ridge see
Iceland–Scotland Ridge
GSDW (Greenland Sea Deep Water) 569,
571, 581
GSSW (Greenland Sea Surface Water) 571
GTSPP (Global Temperature–Salinity
Pilot Project) 534
Guinea Dome 230
Gulf of Lions 17
deep convection 387, 392, 421–422
restratification 397
Gulf Stream 19, 56, 126, 137, 197
altimetry 151, 163, 163, 165, 167
branching 71
diffusivity values 350
eddy fluxes 71, 151
extension 163
heat flux 151, 460, 462
inshore edge instabilities 29
lateral induction 360–361
Mediterranean Water 427
separation 71
SSD (sea surface density) gradients 326
SSS (sea surface salinity) gradients 325
SST (sea surface temperature) gradients
322
subduction models 363–364
subsurface temperature field 157
surface height variability 157, 163, 163
system 162–163
transport 165, 167, 557
wind-driven models 71, 72
Gulf Stream Extension, mode waters
formation 376, 378
Guyana Basin 437
Gyres
circulation 24, 206
wind-driven 14, 18, 19, 67
density field 18
heat transport 5
recirculation 19
subpolar 18, 90
subtropical 18, 19, 24, 92, 132, 151,
376
HadCM2 85, 85, 86
HadCM3 82, 85, 85, 87, 88, 89, 93, 94,
95
Hawaiian Islands 199
Heat budget
equatorial Indian Ocean surface 239
equatorial Pacific 219–220
global 11, 12, 455–456, 456, 457
assessment methods 455, 473
satellite data 149, 150–151, 162,
177–179
tropical Indian Ocean 233
Heat flux/transport 5, 7, 13, 14–15, 17,
23–24, 25, 51, 52, 53, 84–85, 92,
104–105, 120, 173–174, 177–180,
279–280, 307, 310, 312–313,
453–474, 488, 528, 539, 540,
542, 553–554, 564–565, 567, 573,
589
ACC (Antarctic Circumpolar Current)
279–280
Agulhas Retroflection 311–313
assessment methods 455–456
atmosphere–ocean interactions 173
bulk formula estimates 326–328,
456–458, 473
coupled ocean–atmosphere models 82,
84–85, 87–88
climate sensitivity 93
deep convection layers 387, 389, 389
diffusive mixing 338
direct estimates 459–466, 473, 474
Atlantic Ocean 460–462, 461, 462
global analysis 464–466, 465, 466
Indian Ocean 464
indirect estimates comparison
466–467
Pacific Ocean 462–464
by eddies see Eddy fluxes
equatorial Atlantic Ocean 232–233
evaporation 15
global 11, 12, 464–466, 465, 466
cold water pathway 470
observation systems 100, 101
warm water pathway 470
heat storage 17
hydrographic sections 104–105
interannual variability 530
latent heat 15, 177–178
loss 17
mechanisms 468–470
mesoscale eddies 341
modelling 467–468
net heat flux 15
net long-wave radiation 178–179
numerical models 553
large-scale coupling 553–554
radiation 14
short-wave 178
residual method 458–459, 459, 467,
473
sea ice effects 16, 23
sea-level variability 149–151
sensible heat 15, 178–179
shipboard meteorological data
collection 120
Southern Ocean 303, 304
storage 149, 151, 162
subduction, kinematic model 564–565
surface water mass 328–330, 330
bulk formulae 326–328
data sets 534–535
transformation 332
thermocline response to decadal
variability 366
thermohaline circulation modelling
75–76, 76
INDEX
700
50, 52–55, 590
early programmes 32, 33
ongoing maintenance 58
WHP (WOCE Hydrographic
Programme) 100–101
WOCE planning 37
Global Ocean Data Assimilation
Experiment see GODAE
Global Ocean Ecosystem Dynamics
see GLOBEC
Global Ocean Observing System
see GOOS
Global Positioning System see GPS
Global Precipitation Climatology Project
see GPCP
Global Temperature–Salinity Pilot Project
see GTSPP
Global warming see Climate change,
anthropogenic
GLOBEC (Global Ocean Ecosystem
Dynamics) 43
GLONASS 113
GOCE (Gravity Field and Steady-State
Ocean Circulation Explorer) 143,
147, 171
GODAE (Global Ocean Data
Assimilation Experiment) 5, 8, 9,
190, 545, 587, 589, 592,
597–600, 601
components 599–600
outputs 600
phases 600
rationale 598–599
GOOS (Global Ocean Observing System)
9, 35, 40, 43, 190, 526, 586, 587,
588, 592
Climate Module 588
GPCP (Global Precipitation Climatology
Project) 179
GPS (Global Positioning System) 111,
112–113, 138, 171
Differential GPS 113
heading uncertainty reduction 113–114
interior circulation studies 208
lowered ADCP systems 116
position accuracy 113
SA (Selective Availability)/SPS
(Standard Positioning Service) 113
WOCE planning 37
GRACE (Gravity Recovery and Climate
Experiment) 143, 147, 171
Gravity Field and Steady-State Ocean
Circulation Explorer see GOCE
Gravity Recovery and Climate
Experiment see GRACE
Great Australian Bight 305
Great salinity anomaly 399
Great Whirl 240, 242
Greenhouse gas concentrations 7, 12, 26,
79
coupled ocean–atmosphere models 93,
94, 94
Greenland Currents 389, 390
Greenland, palaeoclimate records 26–27,
26
Greenland Sea 6, 567
changes during WOCE 569
cooling warming cycle 570–571, 570
deep convection 21, 387, 399
thermohaline fluxes 306
Greenland Sea Deep Water see GSDW
Greenland Sea Surface Water see GSSW
Greenland–Iceland–Scotland ridge see
Iceland–Scotland Ridge
GSDW (Greenland Sea Deep Water) 569,
571, 581
GSSW (Greenland Sea Surface Water) 571
GTSPP (Global Temperature–Salinity
Pilot Project) 534
Guinea Dome 230
Gulf of Lions 17
deep convection 387, 392, 421–422
restratification 397
Gulf Stream 19, 56, 126, 137, 197
altimetry 151, 163, 163, 165, 167
branching 71
diffusivity values 350
eddy fluxes 71, 151
extension 163
heat flux 151, 460, 462
inshore edge instabilities 29
lateral induction 360–361
Mediterranean Water 427
separation 71
SSD (sea surface density) gradients 326
SSS (sea surface salinity) gradients 325
SST (sea surface temperature) gradients
322
subduction models 363–364
subsurface temperature field 157
surface height variability 157, 163, 163
system 162–163
transport 165, 167, 557
wind-driven models 71, 72
Gulf Stream Extension, mode waters
formation 376, 378
Guyana Basin 437
Gyres
circulation 24, 206
wind-driven 14, 18, 19, 67
density field 18
heat transport 5
recirculation 19
subpolar 18, 90
subtropical 18, 19, 24, 92, 132, 151,
376
HadCM2 85, 85, 86
HadCM3 82, 85, 85, 87, 88, 89, 93, 94,
95
Hawaiian Islands 199
Heat budget
equatorial Indian Ocean surface 239
equatorial Pacific 219–220
global 11, 12, 455–456, 456, 457
assessment methods 455, 473
satellite data 149, 150–151, 162,
177–179
tropical Indian Ocean 233
Heat flux/transport 5, 7, 13, 14–15, 17,
23–24, 25, 51, 52, 53, 84–85, 92,
104–105, 120, 173–174, 177–180,
279–280, 307, 310, 312–313,
453–474, 488, 528, 539, 540,
542, 553–554, 564–565, 567, 573,
589
ACC (Antarctic Circumpolar Current)
279–280
Agulhas Retroflection 311–313
assessment methods 455–456
atmosphere–ocean interactions 173
bulk formula estimates 326–328,
456–458, 473
coupled ocean–atmosphere models 82,
84–85, 87–88
climate sensitivity 93
deep convection layers 387, 389, 389
diffusive mixing 338
direct estimates 459–466, 473, 474
Atlantic Ocean 460–462, 461, 462
global analysis 464–466, 465, 466
Indian Ocean 464
indirect estimates comparison
466–467
Pacific Ocean 462–464
by eddies see Eddy fluxes
equatorial Atlantic Ocean 232–233
evaporation 15
global 11, 12, 464–466, 465, 466
cold water pathway 470
observation systems 100, 101
warm water pathway 470
heat storage 17
hydrographic sections 104–105
interannual variability 530
latent heat 15, 177–178
loss 17
mechanisms 468–470
mesoscale eddies 341
modelling 467–468
net heat flux 15
net long-wave radiation 178–179
numerical models 553
large-scale coupling 553–554
radiation 14
short-wave 178
residual method 458–459, 459, 467,
473
sea ice effects 16, 23
sea-level variability 149–151
sensible heat 15, 178–179
shipboard meteorological data
collection 120
Southern Ocean 303, 304
storage 149, 151, 162
subduction, kinematic model 564–565
surface water mass 328–330, 330
bulk formulae 326–328
data sets 534–535
transformation 332
thermocline response to decadal
variability 366
thermohaline circulation modelling
75–76, 76
INDEX
700