Sedimentation, 142–143
Seismic gaps, 354–355
Seismic reflection profiles, 395
Seismic sea waves, 336, 350
amplification of, 348
Seismology, 339–342
amplitude, 342
body waves, 341
primary (P) waves, 341
secondary (S) waves, 341
seismic vibrations, destruction
from, 347–348
seismographs, 339
surface waves, 341
See also Earthquakes
Settling velocity, stream, 224
Seward Glacier, 265
Shale, 152–153
Shaping stream valleys, 228–236
depositional floodplains, 229
depositional landforms,
230–232
erosional floodplain, 228
incised meanders, 229–230
stream terraces, 229–230
valley deepening, 228
valley floor, 228
valley walls, 228
valley widening, 228–229
V-shaped valley, 228
Sheet erosion, 141
Sheet flow, 218, 316
Sheeted dike complex, 405
Sheeting, 127
Shelf valleys, 397
Shield volcanoes, 100
Kilauea (Hawaii), 101
Shields, 25
Shorelines, 12, 306–333
coastal zone, 309–310
features, 316–319
barrier islands, 318–319
bars, 317
baymouth bar, 317
depositional, 316–317
erosional, 316–317
evolving shore, 319
marine terrace, 316
sea arches, 317
sea stacks, 317
spits, 317
tombolos, 317
wave-cut cliffs, 316
wave-cut platform, 316
hard stabilization, 320–322
interface, 308
relocation, 323
stabilizing the shore, 319–331
See also Waves
Short-range predictions,
earthquake, 352–353
Shortwave radiation, 502
Sidescan sonar, 394–395
Sierra Nevada, 426–427
Silicates
amphibole group, 55
biotite, 55
chain or sheet structure, 50
clay, 54
dark (ferromagnesian), 54–55
feldspar group, 53
garnet, 55
independent tetrahedra
structure, 50
light (nonferromagnesian),
53–54
muscovite, 53–54
olivine group, 55
pyroxene group, 55
quartz, 53
structure, 49–51
three-dimensional
frameworks, 50
weathering, 130
Siliceous rocks, 163
Siliceous sinter/geyserite, 253
Silicon–oxygen tetrahedron, 49
Sillimanite, 192
Sills, 82
Siltstone, 153
Silurian period, 8
Sinkholes, 241, 256
Sites, 448
Slab pull, 387
Slate, 186
Slaty cleavage, 183
Slides, 206
debris, 208
rock, 206
rotational, 206
translational, 206
Slip face, 299, 301
Slope orientation, 137
Slump, 207
Snowline, 265, 267
Soda straw, 256
Soil
basic soil orders, 139
classification, 138–140
climate, 136
Earth system, interface, 133
erosion, 141
formation, 133–134
human impact on, 140–141
nebula, 20, 465
parent material, 133
plants and animals, 136
profile, 137–138
regions, global, 140
residual, 133
soil regions, global, 140
taxonomy, 139
time, 135
topography, 137
transported, 133
Solar tide, 331
Solar variability and climate,
508–509
Solifluction, 211
Solum, 138
Sonar, 394
types of, 395
echo sounder, 395
multibeam sonar, 395
sidescan sonar, 395
Space-age technology, 385
Speleothems, 246, 256
Spheroidal weathering, 130–131
Joshua Tree National Park
(California), 131
Spits, 317
Splash erosion, 142
Splintery, 48
Spodosols, 139
Spreading centers, 29, 369
Spreading rates, 404
Spring tide, 331
Springs, 247
Stable platforms, 25
Stalactites, 256
Stalagmites, 256
Star dunes, 301–302
Steppe, 288
Stocks, 83
Strata, 166
Stratified drift, 274
Stratosphere, 501
Stratovolcanoes, 104
Streak, 45
Stream channels, 224–227
alluvial channels, 225
bars, 226
bedrock channels, 224–225
braided channels, 225–226
cut bank, 226
cutoff, 226
meandering channels, 225
oxbow lake, 226
point bars, 226
Stream erosion, 222–223
Stream terraces, 229–230
Streamflow, 219–228
bankfull, 221
changes downstream, 221–222
channel characteristics,
220–221
discharge, 221
flow velocity, 220
channel shape influence
on, 220
rough channels, 221
gradient characteristics,
220–221
laminar flow, 219
longitudinal profile, 221
rapids, 221
turbulent flow, 219
Streams, 218
and groundwater, interaction
between, 244–245
See also under Groundwater
sediment deposition by, 224
sediment transport by,
223–224
bed load, 223
capacity, 224
competence, 224
dissolved load, 223
settling velocity, 224
suspended load, 223
See also Base level streams;
Graded streams
Striations, 53
Strike-slip faults, 423
Stromatolites, 467, 477, 479
Subducting plates, 410–411
Subduction zones, 30, 372, 387
metamorphism, 190
Submarine canyons, 398
Submergent coasts, 329
Subtropical highs, 289
Sulfur, uses, 169
Sunspots, 508
Supercontinents, 36
of the precambrian, 471
sea level changes and, 473
supercontinent cycle, 471
Supernova, 465
Surf zone, waves in, 312
Surface waves, 341
Surges, 106, 266
Suspended load, 223, 296–297
Swash, 312
Swells, 404
Sylvite, 160
uses, 169
Synclines, 418–419
System, 15
closed, 15
definition 15
feedback mechanisms, 16
natural, 15
open, 16
T
Tabular intrusive bodies, 82
Taconic orogeny, 431
Taj Mahal, 186–187
Talc, uses, 169
Talus slope, 206
Tarn, 272
Tectonic stresses, 338
Temperature, 509
of Earth’ s crust, 182
as a metamorphic agent, 179
Temporary base levels streams,
227
Tenacity, 46
Tensional stress, 416
Terminal end moraine, 276
Terraces, 230
Terranes, 427
Tertiary period, 456
“The Blue Marble,” 11
553
INDEX
Seismic gaps, 354–355
Seismic reflection profiles, 395
Seismic sea waves, 336, 350
amplification of, 348
Seismology, 339–342
amplitude, 342
body waves, 341
primary (P) waves, 341
secondary (S) waves, 341
seismic vibrations, destruction
from, 347–348
seismographs, 339
surface waves, 341
See also Earthquakes
Settling velocity, stream, 224
Seward Glacier, 265
Shale, 152–153
Shaping stream valleys, 228–236
depositional floodplains, 229
depositional landforms,
230–232
erosional floodplain, 228
incised meanders, 229–230
stream terraces, 229–230
valley deepening, 228
valley floor, 228
valley walls, 228
valley widening, 228–229
V-shaped valley, 228
Sheet erosion, 141
Sheet flow, 218, 316
Sheeted dike complex, 405
Sheeting, 127
Shelf valleys, 397
Shield volcanoes, 100
Kilauea (Hawaii), 101
Shields, 25
Shorelines, 12, 306–333
coastal zone, 309–310
features, 316–319
barrier islands, 318–319
bars, 317
baymouth bar, 317
depositional, 316–317
erosional, 316–317
evolving shore, 319
marine terrace, 316
sea arches, 317
sea stacks, 317
spits, 317
tombolos, 317
wave-cut cliffs, 316
wave-cut platform, 316
hard stabilization, 320–322
interface, 308
relocation, 323
stabilizing the shore, 319–331
See also Waves
Short-range predictions,
earthquake, 352–353
Shortwave radiation, 502
Sidescan sonar, 394–395
Sierra Nevada, 426–427
Silicates
amphibole group, 55
biotite, 55
chain or sheet structure, 50
clay, 54
dark (ferromagnesian), 54–55
feldspar group, 53
garnet, 55
independent tetrahedra
structure, 50
light (nonferromagnesian),
53–54
muscovite, 53–54
olivine group, 55
pyroxene group, 55
quartz, 53
structure, 49–51
three-dimensional
frameworks, 50
weathering, 130
Siliceous rocks, 163
Siliceous sinter/geyserite, 253
Silicon–oxygen tetrahedron, 49
Sillimanite, 192
Sills, 82
Siltstone, 153
Silurian period, 8
Sinkholes, 241, 256
Sites, 448
Slab pull, 387
Slate, 186
Slaty cleavage, 183
Slides, 206
debris, 208
rock, 206
rotational, 206
translational, 206
Slip face, 299, 301
Slope orientation, 137
Slump, 207
Snowline, 265, 267
Soda straw, 256
Soil
basic soil orders, 139
classification, 138–140
climate, 136
Earth system, interface, 133
erosion, 141
formation, 133–134
human impact on, 140–141
nebula, 20, 465
parent material, 133
plants and animals, 136
profile, 137–138
regions, global, 140
residual, 133
soil regions, global, 140
taxonomy, 139
time, 135
topography, 137
transported, 133
Solar tide, 331
Solar variability and climate,
508–509
Solifluction, 211
Solum, 138
Sonar, 394
types of, 395
echo sounder, 395
multibeam sonar, 395
sidescan sonar, 395
Space-age technology, 385
Speleothems, 246, 256
Spheroidal weathering, 130–131
Joshua Tree National Park
(California), 131
Spits, 317
Splash erosion, 142
Splintery, 48
Spodosols, 139
Spreading centers, 29, 369
Spreading rates, 404
Spring tide, 331
Springs, 247
Stable platforms, 25
Stalactites, 256
Stalagmites, 256
Star dunes, 301–302
Steppe, 288
Stocks, 83
Strata, 166
Stratified drift, 274
Stratosphere, 501
Stratovolcanoes, 104
Streak, 45
Stream channels, 224–227
alluvial channels, 225
bars, 226
bedrock channels, 224–225
braided channels, 225–226
cut bank, 226
cutoff, 226
meandering channels, 225
oxbow lake, 226
point bars, 226
Stream erosion, 222–223
Stream terraces, 229–230
Streamflow, 219–228
bankfull, 221
changes downstream, 221–222
channel characteristics,
220–221
discharge, 221
flow velocity, 220
channel shape influence
on, 220
rough channels, 221
gradient characteristics,
220–221
laminar flow, 219
longitudinal profile, 221
rapids, 221
turbulent flow, 219
Streams, 218
and groundwater, interaction
between, 244–245
See also under Groundwater
sediment deposition by, 224
sediment transport by,
223–224
bed load, 223
capacity, 224
competence, 224
dissolved load, 223
settling velocity, 224
suspended load, 223
See also Base level streams;
Graded streams
Striations, 53
Strike-slip faults, 423
Stromatolites, 467, 477, 479
Subducting plates, 410–411
Subduction zones, 30, 372, 387
metamorphism, 190
Submarine canyons, 398
Submergent coasts, 329
Subtropical highs, 289
Sulfur, uses, 169
Sunspots, 508
Supercontinents, 36
of the precambrian, 471
sea level changes and, 473
supercontinent cycle, 471
Supernova, 465
Surf zone, waves in, 312
Surface waves, 341
Surges, 106, 266
Suspended load, 223, 296–297
Swash, 312
Swells, 404
Sylvite, 160
uses, 169
Synclines, 418–419
System, 15
closed, 15
definition 15
feedback mechanisms, 16
natural, 15
open, 16
T
Tabular intrusive bodies, 82
Taconic orogeny, 431
Taj Mahal, 186–187
Talc, uses, 169
Talus slope, 206
Tarn, 272
Tectonic stresses, 338
Temperature, 509
of Earth’ s crust, 182
as a metamorphic agent, 179
Temporary base levels streams,
227
Tenacity, 46
Tensional stress, 416
Terminal end moraine, 276
Terraces, 230
Terranes, 427
Tertiary period, 456
“The Blue Marble,” 11
553
INDEX