Theory of plate tectonics, 28
Thermal metamorphism
Thermosphere, 502
Thrust fault, 422
Tidal currents, 331
ebb deltas, 331
flood currents, 331
horizontal flow, 331
Tidal deltas, 331
Tidal flats, 331
Tides, 330–331
causes, 330–331
lunar tide, 331
neap tides, 331
solar tide, 331
spring tide, 331
Till, 270, 274
Tillite, 281
Time scale, 383
need for, 438
See also Geologic time
Tombolos, 317, 320
Topsoil, 137
Trace fossils, 447
Trace gases, 509
role of, 512–514
Tracks, 447
Transform fault boundaries, 32,
376–378
fracture zones, 376
Mendocino fault, 377
plate tectonics, 369
Transform fault, 423
Translational slides, 206
Transpiration, 216, 246
Transported soils, 133
Transverse dunes, 300–301
Travertine, 158, 253, 256
Travertine/calcareous tufa, 253
Tree rings to date and study the
recent past, 454
Trellis drainage pattern, 232
Tremors, 348
Triangulation, earthquakes, 343
Triassic, 474
Tropical rain forest, 140
Tropopause, 501
Troposphere, 501
Troughs, 311
Trunk streams, 219
Tsunami, 346, 350
damage from the 2004
Indonesian earthquake,
350–351
warning system, 351
Tuff, 75
Turbidity currents, 167, 398
Turbulent flow, 219
Turn period, 233
Tyrannosaurus rex, 484–485
U
Ultimate base level streams, 227
Ultisols, 139
Ultramafic rocks, 67
Unconformities, 442–443
angular unconformities, 442
disconformities, 443
nonconformity, 443
Uniformitarianism, 5
Unloading, 127
Unsaturated zone, 243–244
Upper mantle, 24
geothermal gradient, 76
Uranium-234, 450
V
Valence electrons, 40
Valley (alpine) glaciers, 263
Valley floor, 228
Valley trains, 276
Valley walls, 228
Valleys, 228–236
See also Shaping stream valleys
Variegated Glacier, 267
Vein deposits, 86
Ventifacts, 298–299
Vertebrates move to land, 481
Vertisols, 139
Viscosity, 93
Visible life, 455
Voids, 245
Volatiles, 64
magma, 93
Volcanic island arc, 26, 31, 374,
400, 426
Volcanic neck, 112
Shiprock (New Mexico), 112
Volcanic pipes, 112
Volcanism, 507–508
decompression melting, 116
explosive eruptions, role of
volatiles in, 94–95
fissure eruptions, 110–111
Hawaiian-type eruptions,
triggering, 94
hot spots, 117
lahars, 108
lava bombs, 98
lava domes, 111
lava flows, 95
mantle plume, 117
Nuée Ardente, 105
plate boundaries, igneous
activity at, 113–117
plate tectonics, 113–117
pyroclastic flow, 105
pyroclastic materials, 98
Volcanoes
basic structure, anatomy of, 99
calderas, 100, 108
in Cascade Range, 105, 116
cinder cones, 102–104
composite cones, 104
Crater, 100
eruptions, 93
hazards, 118
Kilauea, 92
living with, 118–120
Mauna Loa, 100
Mt. Augustine, 95
Mt. Mazama (Crater
Lake), 109
Mt. Pelée, 107
Mt. Rainier, 108, 116
Mt. Redoubt, 210
Mt. Ruapehu (NZ), 80
Mt. St. Helens, 92
Mt. Unzen, 106, 116
Mt. Vesuvius, 107
Nevado del Ruiz, 108
shield, 100–102
SP Crater (Arizona), 103
Three Sisters (Oregon), 119
viscosity, 93
volcano monitoring
techniques, 119
V-shaped valley, 228
W
Water table, 218, 243–245
variations in, 243–244
Water vapor, 500
Waterfalls, 228
Wave-cut cliffs, 316
Wave-cut platform, 316
Wave erosion, 313–319
longshore currents, 315
longshore transport, 315
sand movement on the beach,
313–314
perpendicular to shoreline,
314
See also Rip currents
Waves, 310–312
base, 312
characteristics, 311
circular orbital motion,
311–312
height, 311
in surf zone, 312
longshore bars, 314
movement, 312
ocean waves, 310
period, 311
refraction, 314–315
wavelength, 311
See also Wave erosion
Weathering, 20, 291
chemical, 126, 128–131
climate, 132
differential, 132
granite, 129–130
mechanical, 125–128
and ore deposits, 144–145
products of, 130
rate of, 131
rock characteristics, 131
silicates, 130
spheroidal, 130–131
Temple of Olympian Zeus
(Athens, Greece), 125
Wegener’ s hypothesis, 367
Welded tuff, 70, 75
Valles Caldera, 75
Wells, 247–248
cone of depression, 247
drawdown, 247
See also Artesian wells
Western North America, 476
Wetted perimeter, 220
Whitecaps, 311
Whole-mantle convection, 388
Wind damage, 327–328
Wind deposits, 299–303
loess (silt) deposits, 303
See also Sand deposits
Wind erosion, 142, 297–299
blowouts, 297
deflation, 297
desert pavement, 297–298
ventifacts, 298–299
yardangs, 298–299
Wind, 286–305
Windbreaks, 144
Y
Yardangs, 298–299
Yazoo tributaries, 231
100-Year flood, 233
Z
Zone of accumulation, 138, 267
Zone of fracture, 266
Zone of saturaion, 243, 246
Zone of soil moisture, 243
Zone of wastage, 267
INDEX
554
Thermal metamorphism
Thermosphere, 502
Thrust fault, 422
Tidal currents, 331
ebb deltas, 331
flood currents, 331
horizontal flow, 331
Tidal deltas, 331
Tidal flats, 331
Tides, 330–331
causes, 330–331
lunar tide, 331
neap tides, 331
solar tide, 331
spring tide, 331
Till, 270, 274
Tillite, 281
Time scale, 383
need for, 438
See also Geologic time
Tombolos, 317, 320
Topsoil, 137
Trace fossils, 447
Trace gases, 509
role of, 512–514
Tracks, 447
Transform fault boundaries, 32,
376–378
fracture zones, 376
Mendocino fault, 377
plate tectonics, 369
Transform fault, 423
Translational slides, 206
Transpiration, 216, 246
Transported soils, 133
Transverse dunes, 300–301
Travertine, 158, 253, 256
Travertine/calcareous tufa, 253
Tree rings to date and study the
recent past, 454
Trellis drainage pattern, 232
Tremors, 348
Triangulation, earthquakes, 343
Triassic, 474
Tropical rain forest, 140
Tropopause, 501
Troposphere, 501
Troughs, 311
Trunk streams, 219
Tsunami, 346, 350
damage from the 2004
Indonesian earthquake,
350–351
warning system, 351
Tuff, 75
Turbidity currents, 167, 398
Turbulent flow, 219
Turn period, 233
Tyrannosaurus rex, 484–485
U
Ultimate base level streams, 227
Ultisols, 139
Ultramafic rocks, 67
Unconformities, 442–443
angular unconformities, 442
disconformities, 443
nonconformity, 443
Uniformitarianism, 5
Unloading, 127
Unsaturated zone, 243–244
Upper mantle, 24
geothermal gradient, 76
Uranium-234, 450
V
Valence electrons, 40
Valley (alpine) glaciers, 263
Valley floor, 228
Valley trains, 276
Valley walls, 228
Valleys, 228–236
See also Shaping stream valleys
Variegated Glacier, 267
Vein deposits, 86
Ventifacts, 298–299
Vertebrates move to land, 481
Vertisols, 139
Viscosity, 93
Visible life, 455
Voids, 245
Volatiles, 64
magma, 93
Volcanic island arc, 26, 31, 374,
400, 426
Volcanic neck, 112
Shiprock (New Mexico), 112
Volcanic pipes, 112
Volcanism, 507–508
decompression melting, 116
explosive eruptions, role of
volatiles in, 94–95
fissure eruptions, 110–111
Hawaiian-type eruptions,
triggering, 94
hot spots, 117
lahars, 108
lava bombs, 98
lava domes, 111
lava flows, 95
mantle plume, 117
Nuée Ardente, 105
plate boundaries, igneous
activity at, 113–117
plate tectonics, 113–117
pyroclastic flow, 105
pyroclastic materials, 98
Volcanoes
basic structure, anatomy of, 99
calderas, 100, 108
in Cascade Range, 105, 116
cinder cones, 102–104
composite cones, 104
Crater, 100
eruptions, 93
hazards, 118
Kilauea, 92
living with, 118–120
Mauna Loa, 100
Mt. Augustine, 95
Mt. Mazama (Crater
Lake), 109
Mt. Pelée, 107
Mt. Rainier, 108, 116
Mt. Redoubt, 210
Mt. Ruapehu (NZ), 80
Mt. St. Helens, 92
Mt. Unzen, 106, 116
Mt. Vesuvius, 107
Nevado del Ruiz, 108
shield, 100–102
SP Crater (Arizona), 103
Three Sisters (Oregon), 119
viscosity, 93
volcano monitoring
techniques, 119
V-shaped valley, 228
W
Water table, 218, 243–245
variations in, 243–244
Water vapor, 500
Waterfalls, 228
Wave-cut cliffs, 316
Wave-cut platform, 316
Wave erosion, 313–319
longshore currents, 315
longshore transport, 315
sand movement on the beach,
313–314
perpendicular to shoreline,
314
See also Rip currents
Waves, 310–312
base, 312
characteristics, 311
circular orbital motion,
311–312
height, 311
in surf zone, 312
longshore bars, 314
movement, 312
ocean waves, 310
period, 311
refraction, 314–315
wavelength, 311
See also Wave erosion
Weathering, 20, 291
chemical, 126, 128–131
climate, 132
differential, 132
granite, 129–130
mechanical, 125–128
and ore deposits, 144–145
products of, 130
rate of, 131
rock characteristics, 131
silicates, 130
spheroidal, 130–131
Temple of Olympian Zeus
(Athens, Greece), 125
Wegener’ s hypothesis, 367
Welded tuff, 70, 75
Valles Caldera, 75
Wells, 247–248
cone of depression, 247
drawdown, 247
See also Artesian wells
Western North America, 476
Wetted perimeter, 220
Whitecaps, 311
Whole-mantle convection, 388
Wind damage, 327–328
Wind deposits, 299–303
loess (silt) deposits, 303
See also Sand deposits
Wind erosion, 142, 297–299
blowouts, 297
deflation, 297
desert pavement, 297–298
ventifacts, 298–299
yardangs, 298–299
Wind, 286–305
Windbreaks, 144
Y
Yardangs, 298–299
Yazoo tributaries, 231
100-Year flood, 233
Z
Zone of accumulation, 138, 267
Zone of fracture, 266
Zone of saturaion, 243, 246
Zone of soil moisture, 243
Zone of wastage, 267
INDEX
554
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