Plutons, 81
crystallization of, 188
Pluvial lakes, 278, 280
Point bars, 226
Polar wandering, 382
Polymerization, 50
Pore spaces, 240
Porosity, 245
groundwater, 245
Porphyroblastic textures, 184
Porphyroblasts, 184
Porphyry, 69
Positive feedback mechanisms,
16, 514
Potassium-argon, 452
Potassium feldspar, 53
Potholes, 223
Precambrian fossil
stromatolites, 479
Precambrian history/time, 455,
468–471
climate, 472
continents formation, 468–471
supercontinents of, 471
Precession, 282, 505
Primary (P) waves, 341
Primitive crust, 22
Principal shells, 40
Principle of cross-cutting
relationships, 441
Principle of fossil succession,
7, 448
Principle of original
horizontality, 440
Proglacial lakes, 279–280
Prokaryotes, 477
Proterozoic, 455
Protons, 40, 449
Protoplanets, 465
Proxy data, 496, 498
fossil pollen, 498
Pumice, 74, 99
Pyrite, 55
Pyroclastic rocks, 75
tuff, 75
welded tuff, 75
Pyroxenes, 55
Q
Quarrying, 223
Quartz, 45
sandstone, 154
structure, 50
uses, 169
Quartzite, 187
Quaternary period, 456
R
Radar altimeters, 395
Radial drainage pattern, 232
Radioactive decay, 44, 450
Radiodating/Radiometric dating,
382, 384, 450–453
carbon-14 dating, 452
half-life, 451–452
importance of, 453–454
potassium-argon, 452
sources of error, 452
Radiosonde, 501
Rainshadow deserts, 290
Range province, 432
Range, 293–299
Rapids, 221, 228
Rebound, ice age glaciers, 278
Recessional end moraines, 276
Recrystallization, 161
Rectangular drainage
pattern, 232
Recumbent folds, 419
Recurrence interval, 233
Red sea, 408
Reefs, 156, 401
Refraction, wave, 314–315
Regional floods, 233–234
Regional metamorphism, 190
Relative dating, 7–8, 438–448
inclusions, 441–442
law of superposition, 440
numerical date, 439–440
principle of cross-cutting
relationships, 441
principle of original
horizontality, 440
unconformities, 442–443
using, 443–444
Relocation, shorelines, 323
Replacement, 446
Replacement cherts, 159
Reptiles, 484–485
Reserves, 56
Residual soils, 133
Resource, 3
Reverse fault, 422
Reverse polarity, 382
Rhyolite, 73
Richter scale, 345
Ridge push, 387
Ridge topography, 404
Rift valleys, 370, 402
Right lateral strike-slip fault, 423
Rills, 142, 218
Ring of Fire, 104, 400
Rip currents, 315–316
Ripple marks, 166
Rises, 404
River systems, 218–219
sediment deposition, 218
sediment production, 218
sediment transport, 218
Rivers of sand, 313
Roches Moutonnées, 273–274
Rock avalanches, 206
Rock cleavage, 183
Rock cycle, 16, 18–20
alternative paths, 20
basic cycle, 20
glaciers, 262
Rocks
building blocks of, 38
creation of, 4
definition, 39
See also Igneous rocks;
Sedimentary rocks
frost wedging, 126
layers, correlation of, 444–446
mineral composition, 18
rate of weathering, factors
influencing, 132
rock flour, 270
salt crystal growth, 126–127
sheeting, 127
strength, factors affecting,
416–417
confining pressure, 417
rock or tectonic
structures, 417
rock type, 417
temperature, 417
time, 417
texture, 18
types, 18
weathering, 125
Rockslides, 206, 208
Rodinia, 430, 471
Root wedging, 128
Rotational slides, 206
Running water, 214–237
drainage basins, 218
stream characteristics, 218
work of, 222–224
See also Hydrologic cycle; River
systems; Shaping stream
valleys; Stream channels;
Stream erosion;
Streamflow
Runoff, 216
S
Saffir–Simpson Hurricane
Scale, 326
Salt flats, 160
Saltation, 295
Sand deposits, 299–300
Sand dunes, types, 300–302
barchan dunes, 300–301
barchanoid, 301–302
longitudinal, 301–302
parabolic, 301–302
star, 301–302
transverse dunes, 300–301
Sand movement on beach,
313–314
Sand sea, 300
Sandstone, 153
composition, 154
Jurassic-age Navajo
Sandstone, 155
particle shape, 153
sorting, 153
Satellite images, 8
Saturated zone, 244
Schistosity, 184
Scientific hypothesis, 8–9
Scientific inquiry, nature of, 8–11
investigation steps, 9
Scientific law, 9
Scientific method, 9–11
glaciers movement, 10–11
Scientific theory, 9
Scoria, 99
Sea arches, 317
Sea stacks, 317
Seafloor, mapping, 394–395
modern bathymetric
techniques, 394–395
seismic reflection profiles, 395
Seafloor sediment, storehouse of
climate data, 496–497
Seafloor spreading, 29, 370, 382,
403–411, 473
Sea-level rise, 516–518
Seamounts, 26, 399–400
Seawalls, 321
Seawater and oceanic crust,
interactions between,
406–407
Secondary (S) waves, 341
Secondary cherts, 159
Secondary enrichment, 144
Sediment by wind,
transportation, 295–297
bed load, 295–296
saltation, 295
suspended load, 296–297
Sediment deposition, 218–219
Sediment production, 218–219
Sediment transport, 218–219
Sedimentary environment, 163
Sedimentary rocks, 18, 20
carbon cycle and, 171–172
classification of, 162
clastic, 162
coal, 170
diagenesis, 161–162
energy resources from, 169–171
Grand Canyon (Arizona), 153
importance of, 150
lithification, 161
nonclastic, 163
nonmetallic mineral resources
from, 168–169
oil and natural gas, 171
origins of, 150
past environments
representation, 163
structures, 166–168
See also Chemical sedimentary
rocks; Detrital
sedimentary rocks;
Organic sedimentary
rocks
INDEX
552
crystallization of, 188
Pluvial lakes, 278, 280
Point bars, 226
Polar wandering, 382
Polymerization, 50
Pore spaces, 240
Porosity, 245
groundwater, 245
Porphyroblastic textures, 184
Porphyroblasts, 184
Porphyry, 69
Positive feedback mechanisms,
16, 514
Potassium-argon, 452
Potassium feldspar, 53
Potholes, 223
Precambrian fossil
stromatolites, 479
Precambrian history/time, 455,
468–471
climate, 472
continents formation, 468–471
supercontinents of, 471
Precession, 282, 505
Primary (P) waves, 341
Primitive crust, 22
Principal shells, 40
Principle of cross-cutting
relationships, 441
Principle of fossil succession,
7, 448
Principle of original
horizontality, 440
Proglacial lakes, 279–280
Prokaryotes, 477
Proterozoic, 455
Protons, 40, 449
Protoplanets, 465
Proxy data, 496, 498
fossil pollen, 498
Pumice, 74, 99
Pyrite, 55
Pyroclastic rocks, 75
tuff, 75
welded tuff, 75
Pyroxenes, 55
Q
Quarrying, 223
Quartz, 45
sandstone, 154
structure, 50
uses, 169
Quartzite, 187
Quaternary period, 456
R
Radar altimeters, 395
Radial drainage pattern, 232
Radioactive decay, 44, 450
Radiodating/Radiometric dating,
382, 384, 450–453
carbon-14 dating, 452
half-life, 451–452
importance of, 453–454
potassium-argon, 452
sources of error, 452
Radiosonde, 501
Rainshadow deserts, 290
Range province, 432
Range, 293–299
Rapids, 221, 228
Rebound, ice age glaciers, 278
Recessional end moraines, 276
Recrystallization, 161
Rectangular drainage
pattern, 232
Recumbent folds, 419
Recurrence interval, 233
Red sea, 408
Reefs, 156, 401
Refraction, wave, 314–315
Regional floods, 233–234
Regional metamorphism, 190
Relative dating, 7–8, 438–448
inclusions, 441–442
law of superposition, 440
numerical date, 439–440
principle of cross-cutting
relationships, 441
principle of original
horizontality, 440
unconformities, 442–443
using, 443–444
Relocation, shorelines, 323
Replacement, 446
Replacement cherts, 159
Reptiles, 484–485
Reserves, 56
Residual soils, 133
Resource, 3
Reverse fault, 422
Reverse polarity, 382
Rhyolite, 73
Richter scale, 345
Ridge push, 387
Ridge topography, 404
Rift valleys, 370, 402
Right lateral strike-slip fault, 423
Rills, 142, 218
Ring of Fire, 104, 400
Rip currents, 315–316
Ripple marks, 166
Rises, 404
River systems, 218–219
sediment deposition, 218
sediment production, 218
sediment transport, 218
Rivers of sand, 313
Roches Moutonnées, 273–274
Rock avalanches, 206
Rock cleavage, 183
Rock cycle, 16, 18–20
alternative paths, 20
basic cycle, 20
glaciers, 262
Rocks
building blocks of, 38
creation of, 4
definition, 39
See also Igneous rocks;
Sedimentary rocks
frost wedging, 126
layers, correlation of, 444–446
mineral composition, 18
rate of weathering, factors
influencing, 132
rock flour, 270
salt crystal growth, 126–127
sheeting, 127
strength, factors affecting,
416–417
confining pressure, 417
rock or tectonic
structures, 417
rock type, 417
temperature, 417
time, 417
texture, 18
types, 18
weathering, 125
Rockslides, 206, 208
Rodinia, 430, 471
Root wedging, 128
Rotational slides, 206
Running water, 214–237
drainage basins, 218
stream characteristics, 218
work of, 222–224
See also Hydrologic cycle; River
systems; Shaping stream
valleys; Stream channels;
Stream erosion;
Streamflow
Runoff, 216
S
Saffir–Simpson Hurricane
Scale, 326
Salt flats, 160
Saltation, 295
Sand deposits, 299–300
Sand dunes, types, 300–302
barchan dunes, 300–301
barchanoid, 301–302
longitudinal, 301–302
parabolic, 301–302
star, 301–302
transverse dunes, 300–301
Sand movement on beach,
313–314
Sand sea, 300
Sandstone, 153
composition, 154
Jurassic-age Navajo
Sandstone, 155
particle shape, 153
sorting, 153
Satellite images, 8
Saturated zone, 244
Schistosity, 184
Scientific hypothesis, 8–9
Scientific inquiry, nature of, 8–11
investigation steps, 9
Scientific law, 9
Scientific method, 9–11
glaciers movement, 10–11
Scientific theory, 9
Scoria, 99
Sea arches, 317
Sea stacks, 317
Seafloor, mapping, 394–395
modern bathymetric
techniques, 394–395
seismic reflection profiles, 395
Seafloor sediment, storehouse of
climate data, 496–497
Seafloor spreading, 29, 370, 382,
403–411, 473
Sea-level rise, 516–518
Seamounts, 26, 399–400
Seawalls, 321
Seawater and oceanic crust,
interactions between,
406–407
Secondary (S) waves, 341
Secondary cherts, 159
Secondary enrichment, 144
Sediment by wind,
transportation, 295–297
bed load, 295–296
saltation, 295
suspended load, 296–297
Sediment deposition, 218–219
Sediment production, 218–219
Sediment transport, 218–219
Sedimentary environment, 163
Sedimentary rocks, 18, 20
carbon cycle and, 171–172
classification of, 162
clastic, 162
coal, 170
diagenesis, 161–162
energy resources from, 169–171
Grand Canyon (Arizona), 153
importance of, 150
lithification, 161
nonclastic, 163
nonmetallic mineral resources
from, 168–169
oil and natural gas, 171
origins of, 150
past environments
representation, 163
structures, 166–168
See also Chemical sedimentary
rocks; Detrital
sedimentary rocks;
Organic sedimentary
rocks
INDEX
552