Andean-type plate
margins, 426
volcanic island arc, 426
Mountainous desert landscape,
evolution, 293–299
Mud cracks, 166
Muddier calcareous sand, 323
Mudflows/mudslides, 108
in Guatemala, 198
on Leyte (Philippines), 198
Mudstone, 153
Multibeam sonar, 395
Muscovite, uses, 169
Mylonites, 191
N
Natural gas, 171
Natural levees, 231
Neap tides, 331
Nearshore zone, 310
Nebular theory, 20
solar system, formation of, 21
Negative feedback mechanisms,
16, 514
Neutron, 449
Nodules, 159
Nonconformity, 443
Nonflowing artesian well, 248
Nonfoliated rocks
marble, 187
quartzite, 187
Nonmetallic mineral resources,
168–169
groups of, 168
uses of, 169
Nonsilicates
classes of, 55
common groups of, 56
economic value, 56
Normal faults, 422
Normal lapse rate, 501
Normal polarity, 382
Nucleus, 449
Numerical date, 439–440
O
Obliquity, 282, 505
Obsidian, 69–70, 73
as a class of igneous rock, 69
formation of, 67, 73
obsidian flow (Oregon), 70
uses of, 69
Ocean basin
evolution, 407
atlantic ocean, 408
continental rift, 407
east African rift, 408
red sea, 408
features, 25
Ocean drilling, 379
Ocean floor, 392–413
evolution, 392–413
origin, 392–413
provinces of, 396–397
continental margins, 396
deep-ocean basins, 396
oceanic (mid-ocean)
ridges, 396
viewing from space, 395
radar altimeters, 395
See also Deep-ocean basins:
features of
Ocean waves, 310
Oceanic crust, 356
nature of, 405
formation, 405–406
gabbro, 405
ophiolite complex, 405
pillow basalts, 405–406
sheeted dike complex, 405
seawater and, interactions
between, 406–407
Oceanic lithosphere, destruction
of, 409–411
subducts, 409–410
Oceanic plateaus, 400
Oceanic ridges, 27, 402–411
anatomy, 402–411
mid-ocean ridge, 402
oceanic ridge, 402
rift valleys, 402
elevation, 403
Galápagos ridge, 404
ridge topography, 404
spreading rates, 404
Oceanic–continental
convergence, 373–374
Oceanic–oceanic
convergence, 374
island arc, 374
volcanic island arc, 374
Oceans, evolution, 468
Oceans, origin, 467–468
Octet rule, 41–42
Offshore drilling rigs, 398
Offshore zone, 310
Oil, 171
Oil trap, 171
Olivine, 50, 55
Ooids, 158
Oolitic limestone, 158
Open pit copper mine, 4
Open systems, 16
Ophiolite complex, 405
Orbital motion, waves, 311–312
Orbital variations, 283
Ore, 57
bauxite deposits, 144–145
Organic process, 156
Organic sedimentary rocks, 151,
160–161
coal, 160–161
Origin of Continents and Oceans,
The, 363
Orogenesis, 425, 428
Oscillation ripple marks, 168
Outer core, 24
Outgassing, 467
Outlet glaciers, 264
Outwash plains, 276
Oxbow lake, 226
Oxisols, 139
Oxygen isotope analysis,
497–498
Ozone, 500
P
Pacific coast, 324
Pahoehoe lava, 96
Paleoclimatology, 496
Paleomagnetism, 380, 383
Paleontologist, 10
Paleontology, 446
Paleozoic era, 479–483
Paleozoic glaciation, 366
Paleozoic history, 455, 474
Pangaea formation, 474
Pangaea, 363
Panthalassa, 381
Parabolic dunes, 301–302
Parent rock, 181
Parícutin, 103
Partial melting, 80, 374
Passive continental margin,
397–398, 408, 426
continental rise, 398
continental shelf, 397
continental slope, 398
deep-sea fan, 398
offshore drilling rigs, 398
shelf valleys, 397
submarine canyons, 398
turbidity currents, 398
Pater noster lakes, 272
Pearly luster, 44
Peat, 160
Pegmatites, 70
Black Hills (South Dakota), 84
Perched water table, 247
Peridotite, 67, 357
Periodic table, 41
Permafrost, 211, 518–520
Permeability, groundwater, 245
Peru–Chile trench, 372, 410
Petrified wood, 447
pH scale, 521
Phanerozoic eon, 8, 455
Phanerozoic, geologic history
of, 473
Phenocrysts, 69
Photochemical smog, 500
Photosynthesis, 463
Phyllite, 186
Physical geology, 2
Piedmont glaciers, 264
Pigment
hematite, 156
limonite, 156
organic matter, 156
umber, 190
Pillow basalts, 405–406
Pillow lavas, 96, 406
Placental mammals, 488
Plagioclase feldspar, 53
Planetesimals, 22, 465
Plastic flow, 266
Plate boundaries, earthquakes,
346–347
Plate–mantle convection, 386
models of, 387
layering at 660
kilometers, 387
whole-mantle
convection, 388
Plate tectonics, 281–282,
360–391
ancient climates, 366–367
continental jigsaw puzzle,
363–364
from continental drift to,
362–368
future, 388–389
lithospheric plates, 369
plate boundaries, 369
convergent boundaries, 369,
372–376
divergent boundaries,
369–372
transform fault
boundaries, 369
plate motion, measurement,
384–389
drivers of, 386
forces that drive, 387
from space, 385
mantle plumes, 385
plate tectonics theory, 339
rock types and geologic
features, 365–366
scientific revolution, 362
testing, 378–384
apparent polar
wandering, 382
glomar challenger, 379
hot spots, 379
magnetic reversals, 382
normal polarity, 382
ocean drilling, 379
reverse polarity, 382
seafloor spreading, 382
theory of plate tectonic, 363
volcanic activity, 113–117
See also under Convergent
boundaries
Platinum, 42
Playa, 294
Pleistocene epoch, 281, 328,
456
Plucking, 269
Plunging anticline, 419
Plutonic rocks, 65
551
INDEX
margins, 426
volcanic island arc, 426
Mountainous desert landscape,
evolution, 293–299
Mud cracks, 166
Muddier calcareous sand, 323
Mudflows/mudslides, 108
in Guatemala, 198
on Leyte (Philippines), 198
Mudstone, 153
Multibeam sonar, 395
Muscovite, uses, 169
Mylonites, 191
N
Natural gas, 171
Natural levees, 231
Neap tides, 331
Nearshore zone, 310
Nebular theory, 20
solar system, formation of, 21
Negative feedback mechanisms,
16, 514
Neutron, 449
Nodules, 159
Nonconformity, 443
Nonflowing artesian well, 248
Nonfoliated rocks
marble, 187
quartzite, 187
Nonmetallic mineral resources,
168–169
groups of, 168
uses of, 169
Nonsilicates
classes of, 55
common groups of, 56
economic value, 56
Normal faults, 422
Normal lapse rate, 501
Normal polarity, 382
Nucleus, 449
Numerical date, 439–440
O
Obliquity, 282, 505
Obsidian, 69–70, 73
as a class of igneous rock, 69
formation of, 67, 73
obsidian flow (Oregon), 70
uses of, 69
Ocean basin
evolution, 407
atlantic ocean, 408
continental rift, 407
east African rift, 408
red sea, 408
features, 25
Ocean drilling, 379
Ocean floor, 392–413
evolution, 392–413
origin, 392–413
provinces of, 396–397
continental margins, 396
deep-ocean basins, 396
oceanic (mid-ocean)
ridges, 396
viewing from space, 395
radar altimeters, 395
See also Deep-ocean basins:
features of
Ocean waves, 310
Oceanic crust, 356
nature of, 405
formation, 405–406
gabbro, 405
ophiolite complex, 405
pillow basalts, 405–406
sheeted dike complex, 405
seawater and, interactions
between, 406–407
Oceanic lithosphere, destruction
of, 409–411
subducts, 409–410
Oceanic plateaus, 400
Oceanic ridges, 27, 402–411
anatomy, 402–411
mid-ocean ridge, 402
oceanic ridge, 402
rift valleys, 402
elevation, 403
Galápagos ridge, 404
ridge topography, 404
spreading rates, 404
Oceanic–continental
convergence, 373–374
Oceanic–oceanic
convergence, 374
island arc, 374
volcanic island arc, 374
Oceans, evolution, 468
Oceans, origin, 467–468
Octet rule, 41–42
Offshore drilling rigs, 398
Offshore zone, 310
Oil, 171
Oil trap, 171
Olivine, 50, 55
Ooids, 158
Oolitic limestone, 158
Open pit copper mine, 4
Open systems, 16
Ophiolite complex, 405
Orbital motion, waves, 311–312
Orbital variations, 283
Ore, 57
bauxite deposits, 144–145
Organic process, 156
Organic sedimentary rocks, 151,
160–161
coal, 160–161
Origin of Continents and Oceans,
The, 363
Orogenesis, 425, 428
Oscillation ripple marks, 168
Outer core, 24
Outgassing, 467
Outlet glaciers, 264
Outwash plains, 276
Oxbow lake, 226
Oxisols, 139
Oxygen isotope analysis,
497–498
Ozone, 500
P
Pacific coast, 324
Pahoehoe lava, 96
Paleoclimatology, 496
Paleomagnetism, 380, 383
Paleontologist, 10
Paleontology, 446
Paleozoic era, 479–483
Paleozoic glaciation, 366
Paleozoic history, 455, 474
Pangaea formation, 474
Pangaea, 363
Panthalassa, 381
Parabolic dunes, 301–302
Parent rock, 181
Parícutin, 103
Partial melting, 80, 374
Passive continental margin,
397–398, 408, 426
continental rise, 398
continental shelf, 397
continental slope, 398
deep-sea fan, 398
offshore drilling rigs, 398
shelf valleys, 397
submarine canyons, 398
turbidity currents, 398
Pater noster lakes, 272
Pearly luster, 44
Peat, 160
Pegmatites, 70
Black Hills (South Dakota), 84
Perched water table, 247
Peridotite, 67, 357
Periodic table, 41
Permafrost, 211, 518–520
Permeability, groundwater, 245
Peru–Chile trench, 372, 410
Petrified wood, 447
pH scale, 521
Phanerozoic eon, 8, 455
Phanerozoic, geologic history
of, 473
Phenocrysts, 69
Photochemical smog, 500
Photosynthesis, 463
Phyllite, 186
Physical geology, 2
Piedmont glaciers, 264
Pigment
hematite, 156
limonite, 156
organic matter, 156
umber, 190
Pillow basalts, 405–406
Pillow lavas, 96, 406
Placental mammals, 488
Plagioclase feldspar, 53
Planetesimals, 22, 465
Plastic flow, 266
Plate boundaries, earthquakes,
346–347
Plate–mantle convection, 386
models of, 387
layering at 660
kilometers, 387
whole-mantle
convection, 388
Plate tectonics, 281–282,
360–391
ancient climates, 366–367
continental jigsaw puzzle,
363–364
from continental drift to,
362–368
future, 388–389
lithospheric plates, 369
plate boundaries, 369
convergent boundaries, 369,
372–376
divergent boundaries,
369–372
transform fault
boundaries, 369
plate motion, measurement,
384–389
drivers of, 386
forces that drive, 387
from space, 385
mantle plumes, 385
plate tectonics theory, 339
rock types and geologic
features, 365–366
scientific revolution, 362
testing, 378–384
apparent polar
wandering, 382
glomar challenger, 379
hot spots, 379
magnetic reversals, 382
normal polarity, 382
ocean drilling, 379
reverse polarity, 382
seafloor spreading, 382
theory of plate tectonic, 363
volcanic activity, 113–117
See also under Convergent
boundaries
Platinum, 42
Playa, 294
Pleistocene epoch, 281, 328,
456
Plucking, 269
Plunging anticline, 419
Plutonic rocks, 65
551
INDEX