Fire, 349–350
Firn, 265
Fissility, 153
Fissures, 110
Flash floods, 233
Flint, 158
Flood basalts, 110
Flood control, 234–235
artificial levees, 234
flood-control dams, 234–235
Flood-control dams, 234–235
Flood currents, 331
Floodplain, 225, 228
Floods, 233–236
channelization, 235
natural behavior, 233
recurrence interval, 233
turn period, 233
types of, 233–234
See also Dam-failure floods;
Flash floods; Ice-jam
floods; Regional floods
Flow, 206, 266
Flow velocity, streamflow, 220
Flowing artesian well, 248
Fluorite, uses, 169
Focus, 336–337
32-Fold energy increase, 346
Folds, 418
Foliated rocks, 186–187
gneiss, 187
phyllite, 186
schists, 186–187
slate, 186
Foliation, 182
rock cleavage, 183
slaty cleavage, 183
textures, 183
types, 182
Fool’ s gold (pyrite), 55
Footwall block, 422
Forces that drive plate
motion, 387
Foreshocks, 338–339
Foreshore, 310
Fossil fish, 4
Fossil fuel, coal, 170
Fossil magnetism, 382
Fossil pollen, 498
Fossils, 446–449
archeopteryx, 7
conditions favoring
preservation, 447–448
geologic past
interpretation, 168
in metamorphic rocks, 180
principle of fossil succession, 7
trace fossils, 447
burrows, 447
coprolites, 447
gastroliths, 447
tracks, 447
types of, 446–447
Fracture
conchoidal, 48
fibrous, 48
of minerals, 47
zones, 376
Fringing reef, 401
Frost wedging, 126
G
Gabbro, 75, 405
Gaining streams, 244
Galápagos ridge, 404
Garnet, 50, 55
uses, 169
Gastroliths, 447
Gelisols, 139
Geochemists, 363
Geologic hazards, 3
Geologic processes in arid
climates, 291–293
role of water, 291–293
weathering, 291
Geologic time, 6
geologic time scale, 7–8
magnitude of, 6
relative dating, 7–8
Geologic time, earth’ s evolution
through, 460–491
atmosphere, 467–468
birth of a planet, 465
characteristics, 462
demise of dinosaurs, 485–487
Devonian period, 480
early Earth, 465–466
early paleozoic life-forms, 480
evolution of life through, 478
from planetesimals to
protoplanets, 465
large mammals and
extinction, 489
oceans, 467–468
primitive atmosphere, 467
reptiles, 484–485
right location, 463
right time, 463–464
vertebrates move to land,
481–482
Geologic time scale, 417,
436–459
difficulties in dating, 457–458
eons, 455
Precambrian time, 455
relative dating, 438–448
structure of, 455
tree rings to date and study
the recent past, 454
Geology, basics of
areas of study, 2
catastrophism, 4–5
Earth system, 15–17
Earth’ s spheres, 11–15
environment, 3–4
geologic time, 6–8
geology today, 5–6
historical notes, 4–6
introduction to, 1–34
modern geology, birth of, 5
people, 3–4
rock cycle, 18–20
science of, 2–3
scientific inquiry, nature
of, 8–11
traditional division, 2
Geophysicists, 363
Geosphere, 14, 216
Geothermal energy, 254–255
geologic factors for, 254
Geothermal gradient, 179
crust, 76
upper mantle, 76
Geysers, 252–254
siliceous sinter/geyserite, 253
travertine/calcareous tufa, 253
Glacial budget, 268
Glacial deposits, 274–283
Glacial drift, types, 274–275
Glacial erosion, 269–270
landforms created by, 270–274
Glacial erratics, 275
Glacial ice, 11
climate change recorded in,
497–498
formation, 265–270
movement, 265–270
basal slip, 266
crevasses, 266
flow, 266
plastic flow, 266
rates of, 266–267
zone of fracture, 266
Glacial striations, 270
Glacial trough, 271
Glacial–interglacial episodes, 505
Glaciated valleys, 271–272
Glaciation, 260–285
causes of, 281–283
Earth’ s orbit, variations in,
282–283
plate tectonics, 281–282
Glaciers, 10, 260–285
Agassiz Glacier, 265
Alaskan glacier, 270
Athabasca Glacier, 268
budget of a glacier, 267–269
glacial zones, 267
Byrd Glacier, 266
continental ice sheets, 263
Cove Glacier, 270
glacial budget, 268
glacial erosion, 269–270
Glaciated valleys, 271–272
Greenland’ s glacial budget, 269
Hubbard Glacier, 268
hydrologic cycle, 262
ice sheets, 263
Kutiah Glacier, 266
Malaspina Glacier, 265
pater noster lakes, 272
in retreat, 268
Roches Moutonnées, 273–274
rock cycle, 262
Seward Glacier, 265
valley (alpine) glaciers, 263
Variegated Glacier, 267
Glass, 68
obsidian, 69–70, 73
Global climate change, 492–523
aerosols influencing, 515–516
basic premise, 506
carbon dioxide, 509
climate change, 509
computer models of, 515
detection, 496–499
human impact on, 509
oxygen isotope analysis, 497
paleoclimatology, 496
pH scale, 521
proxy data, 496
recorded in glacial ice, 497–498
seafloor sediment, 496–497
sea-level rise, 516–518
solar variability and, 508–509
drought, 509
sunspots, 508
temperature, 509
trace gases, 509
volcanic activity and, 505
Global Positioning System
(GPS), 385
Glomar challenger, 379
Glossopterisa, 364
Gneiss, 18, 187
Gold
Ghana (West Africa), 86
purity, 40
Goldilocks scenario, 463
Gondwana, 471–472
Grabens, 408, 422
Graded beds, 166
Graded streams, 227–228
Gradient characteristics,
streamflow, 220–221
Granite, 71
batholiths, 83
spheroidal weathering, 131
weathering, 129–130
Yosemite National Park
(California), 73
Granite porphyry, 18
Granitic magma, 70
Granitic rock, 356
Granodiorite, 23, 356
Graphite, uses, 169
Gravitational collapse, 433
Gravity Recovery and Climate
Experiment
(GRACE), 269
Graywacke, 154
Great Barrier Reef
(Australia), 157
INDEX
548
Firn, 265
Fissility, 153
Fissures, 110
Flash floods, 233
Flint, 158
Flood basalts, 110
Flood control, 234–235
artificial levees, 234
flood-control dams, 234–235
Flood-control dams, 234–235
Flood currents, 331
Floodplain, 225, 228
Floods, 233–236
channelization, 235
natural behavior, 233
recurrence interval, 233
turn period, 233
types of, 233–234
See also Dam-failure floods;
Flash floods; Ice-jam
floods; Regional floods
Flow, 206, 266
Flow velocity, streamflow, 220
Flowing artesian well, 248
Fluorite, uses, 169
Focus, 336–337
32-Fold energy increase, 346
Folds, 418
Foliated rocks, 186–187
gneiss, 187
phyllite, 186
schists, 186–187
slate, 186
Foliation, 182
rock cleavage, 183
slaty cleavage, 183
textures, 183
types, 182
Fool’ s gold (pyrite), 55
Footwall block, 422
Forces that drive plate
motion, 387
Foreshocks, 338–339
Foreshore, 310
Fossil fish, 4
Fossil fuel, coal, 170
Fossil magnetism, 382
Fossil pollen, 498
Fossils, 446–449
archeopteryx, 7
conditions favoring
preservation, 447–448
geologic past
interpretation, 168
in metamorphic rocks, 180
principle of fossil succession, 7
trace fossils, 447
burrows, 447
coprolites, 447
gastroliths, 447
tracks, 447
types of, 446–447
Fracture
conchoidal, 48
fibrous, 48
of minerals, 47
zones, 376
Fringing reef, 401
Frost wedging, 126
G
Gabbro, 75, 405
Gaining streams, 244
Galápagos ridge, 404
Garnet, 50, 55
uses, 169
Gastroliths, 447
Gelisols, 139
Geochemists, 363
Geologic hazards, 3
Geologic processes in arid
climates, 291–293
role of water, 291–293
weathering, 291
Geologic time, 6
geologic time scale, 7–8
magnitude of, 6
relative dating, 7–8
Geologic time, earth’ s evolution
through, 460–491
atmosphere, 467–468
birth of a planet, 465
characteristics, 462
demise of dinosaurs, 485–487
Devonian period, 480
early Earth, 465–466
early paleozoic life-forms, 480
evolution of life through, 478
from planetesimals to
protoplanets, 465
large mammals and
extinction, 489
oceans, 467–468
primitive atmosphere, 467
reptiles, 484–485
right location, 463
right time, 463–464
vertebrates move to land,
481–482
Geologic time scale, 417,
436–459
difficulties in dating, 457–458
eons, 455
Precambrian time, 455
relative dating, 438–448
structure of, 455
tree rings to date and study
the recent past, 454
Geology, basics of
areas of study, 2
catastrophism, 4–5
Earth system, 15–17
Earth’ s spheres, 11–15
environment, 3–4
geologic time, 6–8
geology today, 5–6
historical notes, 4–6
introduction to, 1–34
modern geology, birth of, 5
people, 3–4
rock cycle, 18–20
science of, 2–3
scientific inquiry, nature
of, 8–11
traditional division, 2
Geophysicists, 363
Geosphere, 14, 216
Geothermal energy, 254–255
geologic factors for, 254
Geothermal gradient, 179
crust, 76
upper mantle, 76
Geysers, 252–254
siliceous sinter/geyserite, 253
travertine/calcareous tufa, 253
Glacial budget, 268
Glacial deposits, 274–283
Glacial drift, types, 274–275
Glacial erosion, 269–270
landforms created by, 270–274
Glacial erratics, 275
Glacial ice, 11
climate change recorded in,
497–498
formation, 265–270
movement, 265–270
basal slip, 266
crevasses, 266
flow, 266
plastic flow, 266
rates of, 266–267
zone of fracture, 266
Glacial striations, 270
Glacial trough, 271
Glacial–interglacial episodes, 505
Glaciated valleys, 271–272
Glaciation, 260–285
causes of, 281–283
Earth’ s orbit, variations in,
282–283
plate tectonics, 281–282
Glaciers, 10, 260–285
Agassiz Glacier, 265
Alaskan glacier, 270
Athabasca Glacier, 268
budget of a glacier, 267–269
glacial zones, 267
Byrd Glacier, 266
continental ice sheets, 263
Cove Glacier, 270
glacial budget, 268
glacial erosion, 269–270
Glaciated valleys, 271–272
Greenland’ s glacial budget, 269
Hubbard Glacier, 268
hydrologic cycle, 262
ice sheets, 263
Kutiah Glacier, 266
Malaspina Glacier, 265
pater noster lakes, 272
in retreat, 268
Roches Moutonnées, 273–274
rock cycle, 262
Seward Glacier, 265
valley (alpine) glaciers, 263
Variegated Glacier, 267
Glass, 68
obsidian, 69–70, 73
Global climate change, 492–523
aerosols influencing, 515–516
basic premise, 506
carbon dioxide, 509
climate change, 509
computer models of, 515
detection, 496–499
human impact on, 509
oxygen isotope analysis, 497
paleoclimatology, 496
pH scale, 521
proxy data, 496
recorded in glacial ice, 497–498
seafloor sediment, 496–497
sea-level rise, 516–518
solar variability and, 508–509
drought, 509
sunspots, 508
temperature, 509
trace gases, 509
volcanic activity and, 505
Global Positioning System
(GPS), 385
Glomar challenger, 379
Glossopterisa, 364
Gneiss, 18, 187
Gold
Ghana (West Africa), 86
purity, 40
Goldilocks scenario, 463
Gondwana, 471–472
Grabens, 408, 422
Graded beds, 166
Graded streams, 227–228
Gradient characteristics,
streamflow, 220–221
Granite, 71
batholiths, 83
spheroidal weathering, 131
weathering, 129–130
Yosemite National Park
(California), 73
Granite porphyry, 18
Granitic magma, 70
Granitic rock, 356
Granodiorite, 23, 356
Graphite, uses, 169
Gravitational collapse, 433
Gravity Recovery and Climate
Experiment
(GRACE), 269
Graywacke, 154
Great Barrier Reef
(Australia), 157
INDEX
548