Calving, 267
Cambrian period, 8
Capacity, 224
Carbon cycle, 171
Carbon dioxide, 509–511
Carbon-14 dating, 452
Carbonaceous chrondrites, 477
Carbonate reefs, 156
Carbonate rocks, 163
Carbonic acid, 128
limestone caverns
formation, 129
Carbonization, 446
Casts, 446
Catastrophism, 4
Caverns, 255–256
Cementation, 161
Cenozoic Era, 7, 455–456, 475
age of mammals, 487–488
Chalk, 158
Changing arctic, 518
Channel characteristics,
streamflow, 220–221
Channelization, floods, 235
Chemical bond, 42
Chemical compound, 41
Chemical sedimentary rocks,
151, 156–160
carbonate reefs, 156
chalk, 158
chert, 158
coquina, 158
dolostone, 158
inorganic limestones, 158
limestone, 156
Chemical weathering, 126,
128–131
carbonic acid, 128
water, 128
Chert, 158
Chicxulub crater, 486
Chlorite schist, 187
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 513
Chrons, 382
Cinder cones, 102–104
parícutin, 103
Circular orbital motion, waves,
311–312
Circum-Pacific belt, 346
Cirque, 272
Clay, 54–55
Clay minerals (kaolinite),
uses, 169
Clean dry air, 499
Cleavage, 47
Climate, 472
climate-feedback mechanisms,
514–515
types of, 514
Climate change, 492–523
natural causes of, 505–509
volcanic activity and, 505
See also Global climate change
Closed systems, 15
Coal, 150, 160–161
fossil fuel, 170
Coarse calcareous sand, 323
Coast ranges, 426–427
Coastal classification, 328–330
emergent coasts, 329
estuaries, 329
submergent coasts, 329
Coastal zone, 309–310
backshore, 310
basic features, 309–310
coastline, 309
foreshore, 310
nearshore zone, 310
offshore zone, 310
Collisional mountain belts,
427–433
acadian orogeny, 431
accretion, 428
continental collisions, 428
final orogeny, 431
Himalayas, 429–430
mountain building, 427
North American Cordillera, 428
orogenesis, 428
taconic orogeny, 431
terranes, 427
Columnar joints, 82
Compaction, 161
Competence, 224
Composite cones, 104
Compressional mountains, 425
Compressional stress, 416
Conchoidal fractures, 48
Cone of depression, 247
Confining pressure, 180
Conglomerate, 155
Contact metamorphism, 188
Contamination of groundwater,
251–252
Continental collisions, 428
Continental crust, 356
Continental divide, 218
Continental drift, 28, 362–368
Continental escape, 430
Continental ice sheets, 263
Continental jigsaw puzzle,
363–364
fossils match across the seas,
364–365
Glossopterisa, 364
mesosaurus, 364
Continental margin, 25, 397–398
active, 397–398
See also Active continental
margins
passive, 397–398
See also Passive continental
margin
Continental rifting, 371–372,
407–408
birth of a new ocean basin,
407–408
Continental rise, 26, 398
Continental shelf, 25, 397
Continental slope, 25, 398
Continental volcanic arcs, 116,
374, 400
Continental–continental
convergence, 374–376
Continents
features, 25
formation, 468–471
eastern North America, 476
first continents, 469
from continental crust to
continents, 470
geologic history of
phanerozoic, 473
making continental
crust, 469
North America, 471
supercontinents of the
precambrian, 471
western North America, 476
mountain belts, 25
stable interior, 25
Convergent boundaries, 30–32
plate tectonics, 369, 372–376
continental volcanic
arcs, 374
continental–continental
convergence, 374–376
deep-ocean trenches, 372
oceanic–continental
convergence, 373–374
oceanic–oceanic
convergence, 374
partial melting, 374
Peru–Chile trench, 372
subduction zones, 372
Convergent plate volcanism, 115
Coprolites, 447
Coquina, 158
Coral Atolls, 400–401
Corals, 156, 498–499
Core, 22, 356
inner, 24, 357
outer, 24, 357
Correlation of rock layers,
444–446
Corundum, uses, 169
Covalent bond, 43
Cove Glacier, 270
Crater lake-type calderas, 108
Cratons, 470
Creep, 206
Crests, 311
Cretaceous, 474
Crevasses, 266
Cross beds, 300
Cross-bedding, 166
Cross-dating, 454
Crust, 23–24, 356
continental, 356
oceanic, 356
vertical movements of,
432–433
Crustal deformation, 414–417
brittle deformation, 416,
421–427
compressional stress, 416
ductile deformation, 416,
418–420
elastic deformation, 416
geothermal gradient, 76
tensional stress, 416
Crustal subsidence, ice age
glaciers, 278
Crystal, 45
Crystal habit, 45–46
banded, 46
bladed, 46
botryoidal, 46
prismatic, 46
Crystal settling, 78
Crystallization, 20
Curie point, 381
Cut bank, 226
Cutoff, 226
Cyclones, 324
D
Dam-failure floods, 233–234
Darcy’ s law, 247
Dark (ferromagnesian) silicates,
54–55
Dating with radioactivity,
449–454
Debris flow
mass wasting, 209
in semiarid regions, 209
Debris slide, 208
Decompression melting, 76,
380, 403
Deep-ocean basins, 26
features of, 399–401
abyssal plains, 399–400
guyots, 399
seamounts, 399
Deep-ocean trenches, 26, 30,
372, 399–400
continental volcanic arcs, 400
distribution of, 399
Ring of Fire, 400
volcanic island arc, 400
Deep-sea fan, 398
Deflation, 297
Deformation, 416–417
Deltas, 230
Denali Fault system, 353
Dendritic drainage pattern, 232
Dendrochronology, 454
Density, 48
Depositional features, shorelines,
316–317
Depositional floodplains, 229
Depositional landforms, 230–232
alluvial fan, 230–232
back swamps, 231
INDEX
546
Cambrian period, 8
Capacity, 224
Carbon cycle, 171
Carbon dioxide, 509–511
Carbon-14 dating, 452
Carbonaceous chrondrites, 477
Carbonate reefs, 156
Carbonate rocks, 163
Carbonic acid, 128
limestone caverns
formation, 129
Carbonization, 446
Casts, 446
Catastrophism, 4
Caverns, 255–256
Cementation, 161
Cenozoic Era, 7, 455–456, 475
age of mammals, 487–488
Chalk, 158
Changing arctic, 518
Channel characteristics,
streamflow, 220–221
Channelization, floods, 235
Chemical bond, 42
Chemical compound, 41
Chemical sedimentary rocks,
151, 156–160
carbonate reefs, 156
chalk, 158
chert, 158
coquina, 158
dolostone, 158
inorganic limestones, 158
limestone, 156
Chemical weathering, 126,
128–131
carbonic acid, 128
water, 128
Chert, 158
Chicxulub crater, 486
Chlorite schist, 187
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 513
Chrons, 382
Cinder cones, 102–104
parícutin, 103
Circular orbital motion, waves,
311–312
Circum-Pacific belt, 346
Cirque, 272
Clay, 54–55
Clay minerals (kaolinite),
uses, 169
Clean dry air, 499
Cleavage, 47
Climate, 472
climate-feedback mechanisms,
514–515
types of, 514
Climate change, 492–523
natural causes of, 505–509
volcanic activity and, 505
See also Global climate change
Closed systems, 15
Coal, 150, 160–161
fossil fuel, 170
Coarse calcareous sand, 323
Coast ranges, 426–427
Coastal classification, 328–330
emergent coasts, 329
estuaries, 329
submergent coasts, 329
Coastal zone, 309–310
backshore, 310
basic features, 309–310
coastline, 309
foreshore, 310
nearshore zone, 310
offshore zone, 310
Collisional mountain belts,
427–433
acadian orogeny, 431
accretion, 428
continental collisions, 428
final orogeny, 431
Himalayas, 429–430
mountain building, 427
North American Cordillera, 428
orogenesis, 428
taconic orogeny, 431
terranes, 427
Columnar joints, 82
Compaction, 161
Competence, 224
Composite cones, 104
Compressional mountains, 425
Compressional stress, 416
Conchoidal fractures, 48
Cone of depression, 247
Confining pressure, 180
Conglomerate, 155
Contact metamorphism, 188
Contamination of groundwater,
251–252
Continental collisions, 428
Continental crust, 356
Continental divide, 218
Continental drift, 28, 362–368
Continental escape, 430
Continental ice sheets, 263
Continental jigsaw puzzle,
363–364
fossils match across the seas,
364–365
Glossopterisa, 364
mesosaurus, 364
Continental margin, 25, 397–398
active, 397–398
See also Active continental
margins
passive, 397–398
See also Passive continental
margin
Continental rifting, 371–372,
407–408
birth of a new ocean basin,
407–408
Continental rise, 26, 398
Continental shelf, 25, 397
Continental slope, 25, 398
Continental volcanic arcs, 116,
374, 400
Continental–continental
convergence, 374–376
Continents
features, 25
formation, 468–471
eastern North America, 476
first continents, 469
from continental crust to
continents, 470
geologic history of
phanerozoic, 473
making continental
crust, 469
North America, 471
supercontinents of the
precambrian, 471
western North America, 476
mountain belts, 25
stable interior, 25
Convergent boundaries, 30–32
plate tectonics, 369, 372–376
continental volcanic
arcs, 374
continental–continental
convergence, 374–376
deep-ocean trenches, 372
oceanic–continental
convergence, 373–374
oceanic–oceanic
convergence, 374
partial melting, 374
Peru–Chile trench, 372
subduction zones, 372
Convergent plate volcanism, 115
Coprolites, 447
Coquina, 158
Coral Atolls, 400–401
Corals, 156, 498–499
Core, 22, 356
inner, 24, 357
outer, 24, 357
Correlation of rock layers,
444–446
Corundum, uses, 169
Covalent bond, 43
Cove Glacier, 270
Crater lake-type calderas, 108
Cratons, 470
Creep, 206
Crests, 311
Cretaceous, 474
Crevasses, 266
Cross beds, 300
Cross-bedding, 166
Cross-dating, 454
Crust, 23–24, 356
continental, 356
oceanic, 356
vertical movements of,
432–433
Crustal deformation, 414–417
brittle deformation, 416,
421–427
compressional stress, 416
ductile deformation, 416,
418–420
elastic deformation, 416
geothermal gradient, 76
tensional stress, 416
Crustal subsidence, ice age
glaciers, 278
Crystal, 45
Crystal habit, 45–46
banded, 46
bladed, 46
botryoidal, 46
prismatic, 46
Crystal settling, 78
Crystallization, 20
Curie point, 381
Cut bank, 226
Cutoff, 226
Cyclones, 324
D
Dam-failure floods, 233–234
Darcy’ s law, 247
Dark (ferromagnesian) silicates,
54–55
Dating with radioactivity,
449–454
Debris flow
mass wasting, 209
in semiarid regions, 209
Debris slide, 208
Decompression melting, 76,
380, 403
Deep-ocean basins, 26
features of, 399–401
abyssal plains, 399–400
guyots, 399
seamounts, 399
Deep-ocean trenches, 26, 30,
372, 399–400
continental volcanic arcs, 400
distribution of, 399
Ring of Fire, 400
volcanic island arc, 400
Deep-sea fan, 398
Deflation, 297
Deformation, 416–417
Deltas, 230
Denali Fault system, 353
Dendritic drainage pattern, 232
Dendrochronology, 454
Density, 48
Depositional features, shorelines,
316–317
Depositional floodplains, 229
Depositional landforms, 230–232
alluvial fan, 230–232
back swamps, 231
INDEX
546