lem, once a good deal worse than it is at present, and that there is no reason
to speak ofan “environmental crisis” now. On doser examination, however,
matters do not appear
to be so simple.
Pollution of water by typhoidbacteria created
the hazard of a very spe—
cic disease; it had a single cause, the typhoid organism, and produced an 1m—
mediate' and easily diagnosed disease, typhoid fever. This made it possible to
trace the contaminant to human wastesand to eliminate the problem in a
fairly simple, clear-cut way. And, since people were threatened by a hazard
_
usually created by their own wastes, it made obvious sense to solve that prob—
lem at public expense. People simply taxed themselves to build sewage treat—
ment plants and to develop safe public water supplies. The problem was
—
solved with relatively little controversy over who was at fault and who ought
’
to pay the remedial cost.
‘
In comparison, consider the typical modem water pollution problem of
chemical wastes from industrial plants. The nature of this problem is also reported in Chapter 6. First, it is important
to note
that nearly all industrial
chemicals are synthetic substances, most of which have been commercially
used only since the 19408. This means that the efects of these pollutants,
whatever they turn out to be, are a new factor in environmental degradation.
Second, the contaminants are not one or a few species of specic disease or—
ganisms, but hundreds of different chemicals, a relative few of which have
been tested for their effects on health. Whereas typhoid contamination results
inan immediate and easily recognized disease, some of the modern chemical
contaminants are
and cause a disease—cancer—which may not
—
develop until 10 to 20 years after a person has been exposed. Moreover, can—
cer is caused not by a single agent but by numerous chemicals, by irradiation,
:
and pr0bably by viruses. As a result, when a person develops cancer, no one
can say whether it was due to drinking chemically contaminated Water 10 or
20 years earlier or to some other cause. In addition, the effects of diËerent
Chemicals may be more than additive; for example, two chemicals which do
not themselves cause cancer may react in water (or, in the case of nitrate and
amines, in a
tract) to produce a new substance which does
cause cancer. All this shows that it is difcult to pin down the medical harm
Ï ‘
resulting from these new water pollutants, and that—unlike typhoid—one can—
not focus on a single cause and then eliminate it.
On top of these technical diiculties, the elimination of modern water
pollutants—agaÏn, in sharp contrast
typhoid—is complicated by eco—'
'
nomic, social, and political issues. As thèevidence summarized in Chapter 6
shows, much of the chemical pollution Of water supplies is due to the release
-
of wastes from
plants. This means that today people are exposed to
a hazard which is not of their own making. A city taking its drinking water
from a
stream polluted
wastes could, at great expense, purify the
water and remove the
But, to pay for this, the people of
i
that city‘ would have t0bewlmg ÎO,
fer au environmental
_'
'
hazard created by
Many p®p1dwôùld regard this
an gem ent.
as unjust and would rather forçe the Industrial plants to clean “P their own
wastes.
viii
Foreword
_
‘
'
ll
\
lH\
*
a.»
to speak ofan “environmental crisis” now. On doser examination, however,
matters do not appear
to be so simple.
Pollution of water by typhoidbacteria created
the hazard of a very spe—
cic disease; it had a single cause, the typhoid organism, and produced an 1m—
mediate' and easily diagnosed disease, typhoid fever. This made it possible to
trace the contaminant to human wastesand to eliminate the problem in a
fairly simple, clear-cut way. And, since people were threatened by a hazard
_
usually created by their own wastes, it made obvious sense to solve that prob—
lem at public expense. People simply taxed themselves to build sewage treat—
ment plants and to develop safe public water supplies. The problem was
—
solved with relatively little controversy over who was at fault and who ought
’
to pay the remedial cost.
‘
In comparison, consider the typical modem water pollution problem of
chemical wastes from industrial plants. The nature of this problem is also reported in Chapter 6. First, it is important
to note
that nearly all industrial
chemicals are synthetic substances, most of which have been commercially
used only since the 19408. This means that the efects of these pollutants,
whatever they turn out to be, are a new factor in environmental degradation.
Second, the contaminants are not one or a few species of specic disease or—
ganisms, but hundreds of different chemicals, a relative few of which have
been tested for their effects on health. Whereas typhoid contamination results
inan immediate and easily recognized disease, some of the modern chemical
contaminants are
and cause a disease—cancer—which may not
—
develop until 10 to 20 years after a person has been exposed. Moreover, can—
cer is caused not by a single agent but by numerous chemicals, by irradiation,
:
and pr0bably by viruses. As a result, when a person develops cancer, no one
can say whether it was due to drinking chemically contaminated Water 10 or
20 years earlier or to some other cause. In addition, the effects of diËerent
Chemicals may be more than additive; for example, two chemicals which do
not themselves cause cancer may react in water (or, in the case of nitrate and
amines, in a
tract) to produce a new substance which does
cause cancer. All this shows that it is difcult to pin down the medical harm
Ï ‘
resulting from these new water pollutants, and that—unlike typhoid—one can—
not focus on a single cause and then eliminate it.
On top of these technical diiculties, the elimination of modern water
pollutants—agaÏn, in sharp contrast
typhoid—is complicated by eco—'
'
nomic, social, and political issues. As thèevidence summarized in Chapter 6
shows, much of the chemical pollution Of water supplies is due to the release
-
of wastes from
plants. This means that today people are exposed to
a hazard which is not of their own making. A city taking its drinking water
from a
stream polluted
wastes could, at great expense, purify the
water and remove the
But, to pay for this, the people of
i
that city‘ would have t0bewlmg ÎO,
fer au environmental
_'
'
hazard created by
Many p®p1dwôùld regard this
an gem ent.
as unjust and would rather forçe the Industrial plants to clean “P their own
wastes.
viii
Foreword
_
‘
'
ll
\
lH\
*
a.»