26
Social values and conservation biogeography
no longer present. The biogeography of invasive species
is explored in detail in Chapter 9 , so here we restrict
ourselves to a discussion of the divergent attitudes that
non - native and invasive species provoke in the conservation community.
2.5.1 Attitudes to n on - native s pecies
It is well known that some exotic species can have a
negative impact on biodiversity and ecosystem function, and that they are a major cause of extinction as
well as the driver of huge economic losses (Perrings et
al ., 2005 ). It is generally accepted that the magnitude
and rate of today ’ s biological invasions is unprecedented and that present - day anthropogenic introductions differ from ‘ natural ’ invasions in the increased
spatial scale over which organisms are being moved
and the greatly increased frequency with which such
events occur (Ricciardi, 2007 ). Many biogeographers
are concerned that area - specifi c distinctiveness will be
lost in a process of biotic homogenization (Olden et al .,
2004 ; Rooney et al ., 2007 ; Chapter 9 ).
Nevertheless, the debate over alien species and their
management has been critiqued on the grounds that
not all exotic species are harmful; many are useful to
humans and some, at least, have ‘ positive ’ biodiversity
impacts (Kendle & Rose, 2000 ). Furthermore, several
authors object to the ideology suggested by the emotive
and value - laden terms that are commonly used in
the literature of non - native species (Theodoropoulos,
2003 ; Brown & Sax, 2004 ). Finally, some authors have
questioned whether invasions are a cause of extinction
and ecological ‘ harm ’ (Sagoff, 2005 ) or merely a consequence of biodiversity loss generated principally by
coincidental processes (Gurevitch & Padilla, 2004 ).
Some authors have noted that there are similarities
between terms used in invasion biology and those used
in relation to human immigration, and this has raised
concerns about the underlying ideology of invasion
biology. Theodoropoulos ( 2003 , p. 120), for example,
states that ‘ the foundational concepts and logical
structure of invasion biology are identical to those
of the discredited ideologies of xenophobia, racism,
nationalism, and fascism. ’
Similarly, but perhaps less polemically, Brown and
Sax (2004) suggest that ‘ [t]here seems to be something
deep in our biological nature, related to xenophobia
toward other humans, which colours our view of alien
plants and animals. There is a tendency to treat
2.5 SOCIAL VALUES AND
CONSERVATION PRACTICE
In addition to underpinning protected area designation
and classifi cation, social values also strongly infl uence
management within reserves and the wider landscape
matrix. Perhaps the most fundamental level at which
values can be seen to infl uence management is the decision of what is a justifi able target for conservation.
Callicott et al . (1999) suggest that underlying the
diverse goals and management objectives of conservation are two divergent philosophies: fi rst, to manage
for function/process (the functionalist perspective); or,
second, to manage for a particular composition of
species and communities (the compositionalist perspective). This theme is developed in more detail in
Chapter 3 , but it should be noted that the two rationales are not always separable in practice. For example,
small protected areas may be incapable of functioning
as fully independent ecological systems and may
require intensive management to maintain particular
species or assemblages and to suppress natural fl uctuations in population size or community composition.
Another fundamental issue in conservation management is the notion of ‘ naturalness ’ and to what
extent it dictates conservation goals and management.
Conservation, as the name implies, has always had a
strong emphasis on preserving nature in its ‘ original ’
form. However, the word ‘ original ’ can mean radically
different things, depending on the temporal perspective
that is adopted.
Clearly, the ecological baseline that is chosen will
strongly infl uence how a reserve is perceived and
managed. In Europe, and especially in the UK, a preindustrial baseline with its associated intensive management is the norm, in North America and the developing
world a pre - human ecology is more frequently sought
(Sutherland, 2002 ). These issues are fundamental to
conservation and are explored in detail in the next
chapter.
Within this chapter, we now move on to a brief consideration of the issue of non - indigenous species.
Attitudes to non - natives are likely to vary depending
on whether a functionalist or compositionalist perspective and value set is adopted. From a compositionalist
perspective, non - natives may be viewed as ‘ unnatural ’
elements that should be eradicated. From a (more pragmatic) functionalist perspective, non - native species
may have become an essential component of ecosystem function by taking on the role of a species that is
Social values and conservation biogeography
no longer present. The biogeography of invasive species
is explored in detail in Chapter 9 , so here we restrict
ourselves to a discussion of the divergent attitudes that
non - native and invasive species provoke in the conservation community.
2.5.1 Attitudes to n on - native s pecies
It is well known that some exotic species can have a
negative impact on biodiversity and ecosystem function, and that they are a major cause of extinction as
well as the driver of huge economic losses (Perrings et
al ., 2005 ). It is generally accepted that the magnitude
and rate of today ’ s biological invasions is unprecedented and that present - day anthropogenic introductions differ from ‘ natural ’ invasions in the increased
spatial scale over which organisms are being moved
and the greatly increased frequency with which such
events occur (Ricciardi, 2007 ). Many biogeographers
are concerned that area - specifi c distinctiveness will be
lost in a process of biotic homogenization (Olden et al .,
2004 ; Rooney et al ., 2007 ; Chapter 9 ).
Nevertheless, the debate over alien species and their
management has been critiqued on the grounds that
not all exotic species are harmful; many are useful to
humans and some, at least, have ‘ positive ’ biodiversity
impacts (Kendle & Rose, 2000 ). Furthermore, several
authors object to the ideology suggested by the emotive
and value - laden terms that are commonly used in
the literature of non - native species (Theodoropoulos,
2003 ; Brown & Sax, 2004 ). Finally, some authors have
questioned whether invasions are a cause of extinction
and ecological ‘ harm ’ (Sagoff, 2005 ) or merely a consequence of biodiversity loss generated principally by
coincidental processes (Gurevitch & Padilla, 2004 ).
Some authors have noted that there are similarities
between terms used in invasion biology and those used
in relation to human immigration, and this has raised
concerns about the underlying ideology of invasion
biology. Theodoropoulos ( 2003 , p. 120), for example,
states that ‘ the foundational concepts and logical
structure of invasion biology are identical to those
of the discredited ideologies of xenophobia, racism,
nationalism, and fascism. ’
Similarly, but perhaps less polemically, Brown and
Sax (2004) suggest that ‘ [t]here seems to be something
deep in our biological nature, related to xenophobia
toward other humans, which colours our view of alien
plants and animals. There is a tendency to treat
2.5 SOCIAL VALUES AND
CONSERVATION PRACTICE
In addition to underpinning protected area designation
and classifi cation, social values also strongly infl uence
management within reserves and the wider landscape
matrix. Perhaps the most fundamental level at which
values can be seen to infl uence management is the decision of what is a justifi able target for conservation.
Callicott et al . (1999) suggest that underlying the
diverse goals and management objectives of conservation are two divergent philosophies: fi rst, to manage
for function/process (the functionalist perspective); or,
second, to manage for a particular composition of
species and communities (the compositionalist perspective). This theme is developed in more detail in
Chapter 3 , but it should be noted that the two rationales are not always separable in practice. For example,
small protected areas may be incapable of functioning
as fully independent ecological systems and may
require intensive management to maintain particular
species or assemblages and to suppress natural fl uctuations in population size or community composition.
Another fundamental issue in conservation management is the notion of ‘ naturalness ’ and to what
extent it dictates conservation goals and management.
Conservation, as the name implies, has always had a
strong emphasis on preserving nature in its ‘ original ’
form. However, the word ‘ original ’ can mean radically
different things, depending on the temporal perspective
that is adopted.
Clearly, the ecological baseline that is chosen will
strongly infl uence how a reserve is perceived and
managed. In Europe, and especially in the UK, a preindustrial baseline with its associated intensive management is the norm, in North America and the developing
world a pre - human ecology is more frequently sought
(Sutherland, 2002 ). These issues are fundamental to
conservation and are explored in detail in the next
chapter.
Within this chapter, we now move on to a brief consideration of the issue of non - indigenous species.
Attitudes to non - natives are likely to vary depending
on whether a functionalist or compositionalist perspective and value set is adopted. From a compositionalist
perspective, non - natives may be viewed as ‘ unnatural ’
elements that should be eradicated. From a (more pragmatic) functionalist perspective, non - native species
may have become an essential component of ecosystem function by taking on the role of a species that is