ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS ON THE DEEP SEA
461
the deep sea, their extent and their adverse impacts.
Therefore, regions of high scientific relevance should
be demarcated and protected from any use, except
for further scientific investigations. A few regions
exist in the North-East Atlantic which have been
target areas for long-term scientific studies (e.g., the
Porcupine Seabight and the Rockall Trough region
predominantly studied by British scientists, and the
BIOTRANS / BIO-C-FLUX region around 47ºN, 20ºW
studied by German and international research groups).
A large number of expeditions have been conducted to
study these areas, many results have been obtained and
funding agencies have invested tremendous amounts of
resources in them. These areas are of potentially high
importance in the future, when comparative studies
should provide evidence for stability, or for changes
in species composition and community structure. They
are of high value for science and for society; the funds
already invested could rarely be mobilized again if such
potential reference areas were disturbed. It is therefore
of utmost importance and urgently emphasized that
legal regulations should be provided and high-seas
unique science priority areas established (Thiel, 2002,
2003).
An interdisciplinary workshop involving legal experts, administrators and ecologists was held at the
Internationale Naturschutzakademie Insel Vilm (on the
tiny German island of Vilm) early in 2001 to discuss
legal and scientific aspects of marine protected areas
on the high seas (Thiel and Koslow, 2001). The
conclusions of this conference were submitted through
political channels for further negotiations to the United
Nations Informal Consultative Process on Oceans and
the Law of the Sea (UNICPOLOS).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am most grateful to Dr. Martin V. Angel for
reviewing the manuscript and to Dr. Anthony L. Rice
for his streamlining of my English. Dr. Myriam Sibuet
kindly provided Figure 13.2. Dr. Thomas Soltwedel
and Dr. Ingo Schewe have kindly helped with the
production of the Figures.
REFERENCES
Aarkrog, A., Dahlgaard, H., Hallstadius, L., Hansen, H. and Holm, E.,
1983. Radiocaesium from Sellafield effluents in Greenland waters.
Nature London, 304: 49−51.
Aarkrog, A., Boelskifte, S., Dahlgaard, H., Duniec, S., Hallstadius, L.,
Holm, E. and Smith, J.N., 1987. Technetium-99 and Cesium-134
as long distance tracers in Arctic waters. Estuarine Coastal Shelf
Sci., 24: 637−647.
Abu Gideiri, Y.B., 1984. Implications of sea mining for the Red Sea
environment. Hydrobiologia, 110: 15−19.
Adams, E.E., Golumb, D., Zhang, X.Y. and Herzog, H.J., 1995.
Confined release of CO 2 into shallow seawater. In: N. Handa and
T. Ohsumi (Editors), Direct Ocean Disposal of Carbon Dioxide.
Terra Scientific Publishing Co., Tokyo, pp. 153–164.
Advisory Committee on Pollution of the Sea, 1988. ACOPS Yearbook
1986/87. Advisory Committee of Pollution of the Sea, London.
Amann, H., 1985. Development of ocean mining in the Red Sea.
Mar. Min., 5: 103−116.
Amann, H., 1990. Outlook for technical advances and environmental
requirements in hard mineral mining on the deep-sea floor. Mater.
Soc., 14: 387−396.
Amann, H., B¨ acker, H. and Blissenbach, E., 1973. Metalliferous
muds of the marine environment. In: Proceedings of the Offshore
Technology Conference, Houston, Texas, OTC Paper 1759, Vol. 1.
Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Richardson, TX,
pp. 345–358.
Amos, A.F. and Roels, O.A., 1977. Environmental aspects of
manganese nodule mining. Mar. Policy, 1: 156−163.
Amos, A.F., Garside, C., Haines, K.C. and Roels, O.A., 1972. Effects
of surface-discharged deep sea mining effluents. Mar. Technol.
Soc. J., 6: 40−45.
Amos, A.F., Garside, C., Gerard, R.D., Levitus, S., Malone, T.C.,
Paul, A.Z. and Roels, O.A., 1973. Study of the impact of manganese
nodule mining on the seabed and water column. In: Inter-University
Program of Research on Ferromanganese Deposits of the Ocean
Floor, Phase I Report. Seabed Assessment Program, IDOE/NSF,
Washington, DC, pp. 221–264.
Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme, 1998. AMAP
Assessment Report: Arctic Pollution Issues. Arctic Monitoring and
Assessment Programme (AMAP), Oslo, Norway, 859 pp.
B¨ acker, H., 1980. Erzschl¨ amme. Geol. Jahrb., D 38: 77−108.
Ballard, R.D., 1984. Exploring the East Pacific Rise. Oceanus, 27:
7−14.
Ballschmiter, K.H., Froescheis, O., Jarman, W.M. and Caillet, G.,
1997. Contamination of the deep-sea. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 34:
288−289.
Bath, A.R., 1989. Deep sea mining technology: recent developments
and future projects. In: Proceedings of the Offshore Technology
Conference, Houston, Texas, OTC Paper 5998, Vol. 2. Society for
Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Richardson, TX, pp. 333–
340.
Bechtel Corporation, 1996. Deep-Sea Nodule Mining Prefeasibility
Study (Executive Summary). Bechtel Corporation, Mining and
Metals, San Francisco, CA, 24 pp.
Beckmann, W., 1984. Mesozooplankton distribution on a transect
from the Gulf of Aden to the Central Red Sea during the winter
monsoon. Oceanol. Acta, 7: 87−102.
Bein, A. and F¨ utterer, D., 1977. Texture and composition of
continental shelf to rise sediments off the northwestern coast
of Africa: an indication of downslope transportation. Meteor
Forschungsergeb. Reihe C, 27: 46−74.
Bernard, J., Bath, A.R. and Greger, B., 1987. Analysis and comparison
of nodule hydraulic transport systems. In: Proceedings of the
461
the deep sea, their extent and their adverse impacts.
Therefore, regions of high scientific relevance should
be demarcated and protected from any use, except
for further scientific investigations. A few regions
exist in the North-East Atlantic which have been
target areas for long-term scientific studies (e.g., the
Porcupine Seabight and the Rockall Trough region
predominantly studied by British scientists, and the
BIOTRANS / BIO-C-FLUX region around 47ºN, 20ºW
studied by German and international research groups).
A large number of expeditions have been conducted to
study these areas, many results have been obtained and
funding agencies have invested tremendous amounts of
resources in them. These areas are of potentially high
importance in the future, when comparative studies
should provide evidence for stability, or for changes
in species composition and community structure. They
are of high value for science and for society; the funds
already invested could rarely be mobilized again if such
potential reference areas were disturbed. It is therefore
of utmost importance and urgently emphasized that
legal regulations should be provided and high-seas
unique science priority areas established (Thiel, 2002,
2003).
An interdisciplinary workshop involving legal experts, administrators and ecologists was held at the
Internationale Naturschutzakademie Insel Vilm (on the
tiny German island of Vilm) early in 2001 to discuss
legal and scientific aspects of marine protected areas
on the high seas (Thiel and Koslow, 2001). The
conclusions of this conference were submitted through
political channels for further negotiations to the United
Nations Informal Consultative Process on Oceans and
the Law of the Sea (UNICPOLOS).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am most grateful to Dr. Martin V. Angel for
reviewing the manuscript and to Dr. Anthony L. Rice
for his streamlining of my English. Dr. Myriam Sibuet
kindly provided Figure 13.2. Dr. Thomas Soltwedel
and Dr. Ingo Schewe have kindly helped with the
production of the Figures.
REFERENCES
Aarkrog, A., Dahlgaard, H., Hallstadius, L., Hansen, H. and Holm, E.,
1983. Radiocaesium from Sellafield effluents in Greenland waters.
Nature London, 304: 49−51.
Aarkrog, A., Boelskifte, S., Dahlgaard, H., Duniec, S., Hallstadius, L.,
Holm, E. and Smith, J.N., 1987. Technetium-99 and Cesium-134
as long distance tracers in Arctic waters. Estuarine Coastal Shelf
Sci., 24: 637−647.
Abu Gideiri, Y.B., 1984. Implications of sea mining for the Red Sea
environment. Hydrobiologia, 110: 15−19.
Adams, E.E., Golumb, D., Zhang, X.Y. and Herzog, H.J., 1995.
Confined release of CO 2 into shallow seawater. In: N. Handa and
T. Ohsumi (Editors), Direct Ocean Disposal of Carbon Dioxide.
Terra Scientific Publishing Co., Tokyo, pp. 153–164.
Advisory Committee on Pollution of the Sea, 1988. ACOPS Yearbook
1986/87. Advisory Committee of Pollution of the Sea, London.
Amann, H., 1985. Development of ocean mining in the Red Sea.
Mar. Min., 5: 103−116.
Amann, H., 1990. Outlook for technical advances and environmental
requirements in hard mineral mining on the deep-sea floor. Mater.
Soc., 14: 387−396.
Amann, H., B¨ acker, H. and Blissenbach, E., 1973. Metalliferous
muds of the marine environment. In: Proceedings of the Offshore
Technology Conference, Houston, Texas, OTC Paper 1759, Vol. 1.
Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Richardson, TX,
pp. 345–358.
Amos, A.F. and Roels, O.A., 1977. Environmental aspects of
manganese nodule mining. Mar. Policy, 1: 156−163.
Amos, A.F., Garside, C., Haines, K.C. and Roels, O.A., 1972. Effects
of surface-discharged deep sea mining effluents. Mar. Technol.
Soc. J., 6: 40−45.
Amos, A.F., Garside, C., Gerard, R.D., Levitus, S., Malone, T.C.,
Paul, A.Z. and Roels, O.A., 1973. Study of the impact of manganese
nodule mining on the seabed and water column. In: Inter-University
Program of Research on Ferromanganese Deposits of the Ocean
Floor, Phase I Report. Seabed Assessment Program, IDOE/NSF,
Washington, DC, pp. 221–264.
Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme, 1998. AMAP
Assessment Report: Arctic Pollution Issues. Arctic Monitoring and
Assessment Programme (AMAP), Oslo, Norway, 859 pp.
B¨ acker, H., 1980. Erzschl¨ amme. Geol. Jahrb., D 38: 77−108.
Ballard, R.D., 1984. Exploring the East Pacific Rise. Oceanus, 27:
7−14.
Ballschmiter, K.H., Froescheis, O., Jarman, W.M. and Caillet, G.,
1997. Contamination of the deep-sea. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 34:
288−289.
Bath, A.R., 1989. Deep sea mining technology: recent developments
and future projects. In: Proceedings of the Offshore Technology
Conference, Houston, Texas, OTC Paper 5998, Vol. 2. Society for
Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Richardson, TX, pp. 333–
340.
Bechtel Corporation, 1996. Deep-Sea Nodule Mining Prefeasibility
Study (Executive Summary). Bechtel Corporation, Mining and
Metals, San Francisco, CA, 24 pp.
Beckmann, W., 1984. Mesozooplankton distribution on a transect
from the Gulf of Aden to the Central Red Sea during the winter
monsoon. Oceanol. Acta, 7: 87−102.
Bein, A. and F¨ utterer, D., 1977. Texture and composition of
continental shelf to rise sediments off the northwestern coast
of Africa: an indication of downslope transportation. Meteor
Forschungsergeb. Reihe C, 27: 46−74.
Bernard, J., Bath, A.R. and Greger, B., 1987. Analysis and comparison
of nodule hydraulic transport systems. In: Proceedings of the