on knowledge of sun-position and time, and the corresponding areas are removed
from further processing, resulting in gaps in the data.
11.2.3 History of Thermal Monitoring
In 1960, the U.S. government launched the first weather satellite, Television Infrared
Observation Satellite (TIROS-1), providing the first repeat images of Earth from
space. Infrared sensors were developed and installed on subsequent satellite missions
from 1965, culminating in 1972 with the launch of the two-channel Scanning
Radiometer (SR) and the higher-resolution two-channel Very High Resolution
Radiometer (VHRR) onboard NOAA-2. Further refinements led to the four-channel
Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR), first launched in 1978
onboard TIROS-N, the five-channel AVHRR/2 in 1981 onboard NOAA-7 and the
six-channel AVHRR/3 in 1998 onboard NOAA-15 (see Table 11.2). To date there
are 3 decades of continuous data from AVHRR on polar-orbiting satellites. Augmenting these NOAA satellites, an AVHRR was also installed on MetOp-A (launched in 2006), the first of three MetOp satellites in a program jointly established by
the European Space Agency (ESA) and EUMETSAT. The second satellite in this
series, MetOp-B was launched in September 2012. In addition, the Visible/Infrared
Imager/Radiometer Suite (VIIRS), a 22-band radiometer, was carried on the first
satellite of the National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System
(NPOESS) Preparatory Project (NPP), launched in October 2011.
The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) is deployed on
two polar-orbiting satellites of NASA’s Earth Observing System (EOS): Terra,
launched in 2000, and Aqua, launched in 2002. The MODIS sensor has 36 channels
designed to cover a suite of applications, including ocean color and ozone monitoring (see Table 11.1 for select channel information). In addition to MODIS, the
Aqua satellite also carries the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer for EOS
(AMSR-E). A precursor to this instrument, AMSR, was onboard the unfortunately
brief ADEOS-II satellite mission of 2002–2003, a joint effort of the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), NASA, and the Centre National d’Études
Spatiales (CNES, France). Microwave remote sensing of temperature has also been
undertaken, since 1978, using the Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer
(SMMR; 1978–1987, onboard Seasat and Nimbus 7); Special Sensor Microwave
Imager (SSM/I; 1987–present, onboard U.S. Defense Meteorological Satellite
Program satellites, now administered by NOAA); and Tropical Rainfall Measuring
Mission (TRMM) Microwave Imager (TMI; 1997–present). The TRMM satellite
monitors only the tropical regions due to a 35° inclination and also carries the
Visible and Infrared Scanner (VIRS), making it the forerunner of direct comparisons between microwave and infrared measurements of temperature.
The first geostationary satellite for environmental observation, SMS-1, was launched in 1974 to monitor conditions over the central Atlantic Ocean (45°W) and SMS2 was launched and positioned over the Pacific Ocean (135°W) the following year.
294
S. F. Heron et al.
from further processing, resulting in gaps in the data.
11.2.3 History of Thermal Monitoring
In 1960, the U.S. government launched the first weather satellite, Television Infrared
Observation Satellite (TIROS-1), providing the first repeat images of Earth from
space. Infrared sensors were developed and installed on subsequent satellite missions
from 1965, culminating in 1972 with the launch of the two-channel Scanning
Radiometer (SR) and the higher-resolution two-channel Very High Resolution
Radiometer (VHRR) onboard NOAA-2. Further refinements led to the four-channel
Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR), first launched in 1978
onboard TIROS-N, the five-channel AVHRR/2 in 1981 onboard NOAA-7 and the
six-channel AVHRR/3 in 1998 onboard NOAA-15 (see Table 11.2). To date there
are 3 decades of continuous data from AVHRR on polar-orbiting satellites. Augmenting these NOAA satellites, an AVHRR was also installed on MetOp-A (launched in 2006), the first of three MetOp satellites in a program jointly established by
the European Space Agency (ESA) and EUMETSAT. The second satellite in this
series, MetOp-B was launched in September 2012. In addition, the Visible/Infrared
Imager/Radiometer Suite (VIIRS), a 22-band radiometer, was carried on the first
satellite of the National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System
(NPOESS) Preparatory Project (NPP), launched in October 2011.
The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) is deployed on
two polar-orbiting satellites of NASA’s Earth Observing System (EOS): Terra,
launched in 2000, and Aqua, launched in 2002. The MODIS sensor has 36 channels
designed to cover a suite of applications, including ocean color and ozone monitoring (see Table 11.1 for select channel information). In addition to MODIS, the
Aqua satellite also carries the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer for EOS
(AMSR-E). A precursor to this instrument, AMSR, was onboard the unfortunately
brief ADEOS-II satellite mission of 2002–2003, a joint effort of the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), NASA, and the Centre National d’Études
Spatiales (CNES, France). Microwave remote sensing of temperature has also been
undertaken, since 1978, using the Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer
(SMMR; 1978–1987, onboard Seasat and Nimbus 7); Special Sensor Microwave
Imager (SSM/I; 1987–present, onboard U.S. Defense Meteorological Satellite
Program satellites, now administered by NOAA); and Tropical Rainfall Measuring
Mission (TRMM) Microwave Imager (TMI; 1997–present). The TRMM satellite
monitors only the tropical regions due to a 35° inclination and also carries the
Visible and Infrared Scanner (VIRS), making it the forerunner of direct comparisons between microwave and infrared measurements of temperature.
The first geostationary satellite for environmental observation, SMS-1, was launched in 1974 to monitor conditions over the central Atlantic Ocean (45°W) and SMS2 was launched and positioned over the Pacific Ocean (135°W) the following year.
294
S. F. Heron et al.