especially important to consider for megacities in which many assets are located. So,
we need to address climate change mitigation and adaptation at the same time. The
AR5 (IPCC 2014) also points out that significant co-benefits, synergies, and trade-offs
exist between mitigation and adaptation and among different adaptation responses.
Increasing efforts to mitigate and adapt to climate change imply an increasing
complexity of interactions, particularly at the intersections among water, energy,
land use, and biodiversity, but tools to understand and manage these interactions
remain limited. Under the present circumstances, there are not enough prospects for
efficient GHG mitigation measures on the global scale. We must adapt to the impacts
of climate change in such a case where global mean temperatures could rise about 4
C
in the present century compared with past preindustrial averages.
Current conventional urban policy has difficulty in coping with complex disasters (e.g. extreme weather events such as local heavy rainfall, sea level rise and
tsunami caused by typhoons and so on). After the Great East Japan Earthquake, the
concept of urban resilience has been discussed more widely in Japan. Resilient
cities cannot be realized without considering energy and natural disaster risks. In
case of sea-level change, the eco-system is also affected, and managed retreat can
be effective as one way of climate change adaptation (Gilman et al. 2008). The risk
characteristics of the frequency and intensity of flood disasters and the vulnerability
of social systems including land-use change need to be analyzed. Although almost
all local governments are pursuing measures for climate change mitigation, they
have not focused on climate change adaptation as a priority policy yet. There is a
need to review the interaction between climate change mitigation and adaptation
measures, especially the co-benefits and trade-offs.
12.1.2 Land Use Approach for Climate Change Mitigation/
Adaptation
In the field of urban planning, climate change adaptation is already addressed in
some projects such as the Auckland Sustainability Framework and Suburban
Neighborhood Adaptation to Changing Climate (SNACC). In this chapter, we
focus on the adaptation to flood risk, especially considering land-use change. It is
effective to reduce the damage by land-use regulations which distinguish between
areas with disaster prevention measures and areas with little infrastructure and
buildings. For example, land use is regulated depending on the degree of inundation
height. Such regulation is introduced in Germany, Nicaragua, Ecuador and Czech.
In Nagoya, Japan, buildings are controlled in the flood-hazard areas. However, the
combination of other land-use regulations such as compact city is not considered.
OECD (2012) defined the key characteristics of a compact city as (i) dense and
proximate development patterns, (ii) urban areas linked by transport systems and
(iii) accessibility to local services and jobs. It can contribute to achieving urban
sustainability including environmental, social and economic benefits as well as a
reduction of CO 2 emissions from automobiles due to shorter intra-urban distances
12 An Integrated Model for Assessing Carbon Dioxide Emissions Considering. . .
243
we need to address climate change mitigation and adaptation at the same time. The
AR5 (IPCC 2014) also points out that significant co-benefits, synergies, and trade-offs
exist between mitigation and adaptation and among different adaptation responses.
Increasing efforts to mitigate and adapt to climate change imply an increasing
complexity of interactions, particularly at the intersections among water, energy,
land use, and biodiversity, but tools to understand and manage these interactions
remain limited. Under the present circumstances, there are not enough prospects for
efficient GHG mitigation measures on the global scale. We must adapt to the impacts
of climate change in such a case where global mean temperatures could rise about 4
C
in the present century compared with past preindustrial averages.
Current conventional urban policy has difficulty in coping with complex disasters (e.g. extreme weather events such as local heavy rainfall, sea level rise and
tsunami caused by typhoons and so on). After the Great East Japan Earthquake, the
concept of urban resilience has been discussed more widely in Japan. Resilient
cities cannot be realized without considering energy and natural disaster risks. In
case of sea-level change, the eco-system is also affected, and managed retreat can
be effective as one way of climate change adaptation (Gilman et al. 2008). The risk
characteristics of the frequency and intensity of flood disasters and the vulnerability
of social systems including land-use change need to be analyzed. Although almost
all local governments are pursuing measures for climate change mitigation, they
have not focused on climate change adaptation as a priority policy yet. There is a
need to review the interaction between climate change mitigation and adaptation
measures, especially the co-benefits and trade-offs.
12.1.2 Land Use Approach for Climate Change Mitigation/
Adaptation
In the field of urban planning, climate change adaptation is already addressed in
some projects such as the Auckland Sustainability Framework and Suburban
Neighborhood Adaptation to Changing Climate (SNACC). In this chapter, we
focus on the adaptation to flood risk, especially considering land-use change. It is
effective to reduce the damage by land-use regulations which distinguish between
areas with disaster prevention measures and areas with little infrastructure and
buildings. For example, land use is regulated depending on the degree of inundation
height. Such regulation is introduced in Germany, Nicaragua, Ecuador and Czech.
In Nagoya, Japan, buildings are controlled in the flood-hazard areas. However, the
combination of other land-use regulations such as compact city is not considered.
OECD (2012) defined the key characteristics of a compact city as (i) dense and
proximate development patterns, (ii) urban areas linked by transport systems and
(iii) accessibility to local services and jobs. It can contribute to achieving urban
sustainability including environmental, social and economic benefits as well as a
reduction of CO 2 emissions from automobiles due to shorter intra-urban distances
12 An Integrated Model for Assessing Carbon Dioxide Emissions Considering. . .
243