and oxidative stress by suppressing aortic inducible NOS (iNOS) and tumor
necrosis factor (TNF)-a expression (Justo et al. 2013).
Dietary soy protein has been suggested to reduce cardiac lipid accumulation
and the ceramide concentration in high-fat diet-fed rats and ob/ob mice (TorreVillalvazo et al. 2009). Soy protein intake led to lower cholesterol and triglyceride
concentrations in the hearts of rats and ob/ob mice in association with a greater
PPARa mRNA concentration and a low level of sterol regulatory element binding
protein-1 mRNA. A study in a high cardiovascular risk population shows that the
MTD influences expression of key genes involved in vascular inflammation
[cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP-1)], foam cell formation [low-density lipoprotein receptorrelated protein (LRP1), LDL receptor and CD36], and thrombosis [tissue factor
(TF) and tissue factor pathway inhibitor (TFPI)] (Llorente-Cortés et al. 2010)
(Table 10.1).
The very long-chain n-3 fatty acids, especially eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA,
20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3), are believed to be particularly
important in the prevention of CVD (Russo 2009). Preformed EPA and DHA are
found predominantly in fish and fish oils. a-Linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3n-3), a
shorter-chain n-3 fatty acid, is present in various plant-based foods such as flaxseed, walnut, soybean, and canola, can be metabolically converted to EPA and
DHA and is also of interest for CVD prevention (Jung et al. 2008). The exact
mechanisms by which n-3 fatty acids exert a cardioprotective effect are unclear but
are being better defined. n-3 fatty acids can influence many aspects of CVD
pathogenesis, including arrhythmias, lipid concentrations, blood pressure, platelet
aggregation, vascular relaxation, inflammation, and likely arterial cholesterol
delivery. For example, n-3 fatty acids affect the expression of several key proteins
as modulators of many genes involved in lipid metabolism, inflammation, and
smooth muscle cell proliferation, genes that can play a pivotal role in prevention
and treatment of CVD and atherosclerosis (Fig. 10.3) (Jung et al. 2008).
Additionally, epidemiological studies suggest a protective effect of olive oil
(monounsaturated fatty acids rich) consumption on CVD (Covas et al. 2007). In
agreement with this, genes related with atherosclerosis processes were modulated
after olive oil ingestion in humans (Konstantinidou et al. 2009). Also, olive oil
polyphenols enhance the expression of cholesterol efflux related genes in vivo in
humans, according to a randomized controlled trial (Farrás et al. 2013).
Other study explored the overall nutrigenomic effect associated with a TMD
(Castañer et al. 2013). Of 18 cardiovascular canonical pathway analyses, 12
pathways were differentially expressed, and 43 % of pathways were modulated by
TMD supplemented with VOO or nuts; the most prevalent pathways were related
to atherosclerosis and hypertension.
However, a recent systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials showed no evidence to support the use of vitamin and antioxidant
supplements for prevention of CVDs (Myung et al. 2013).
10 Natural Foods as Biosystems to Face Noncommunicable Chronic Diseases
309
necrosis factor (TNF)-a expression (Justo et al. 2013).
Dietary soy protein has been suggested to reduce cardiac lipid accumulation
and the ceramide concentration in high-fat diet-fed rats and ob/ob mice (TorreVillalvazo et al. 2009). Soy protein intake led to lower cholesterol and triglyceride
concentrations in the hearts of rats and ob/ob mice in association with a greater
PPARa mRNA concentration and a low level of sterol regulatory element binding
protein-1 mRNA. A study in a high cardiovascular risk population shows that the
MTD influences expression of key genes involved in vascular inflammation
[cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP-1)], foam cell formation [low-density lipoprotein receptorrelated protein (LRP1), LDL receptor and CD36], and thrombosis [tissue factor
(TF) and tissue factor pathway inhibitor (TFPI)] (Llorente-Cortés et al. 2010)
(Table 10.1).
The very long-chain n-3 fatty acids, especially eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA,
20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3), are believed to be particularly
important in the prevention of CVD (Russo 2009). Preformed EPA and DHA are
found predominantly in fish and fish oils. a-Linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3n-3), a
shorter-chain n-3 fatty acid, is present in various plant-based foods such as flaxseed, walnut, soybean, and canola, can be metabolically converted to EPA and
DHA and is also of interest for CVD prevention (Jung et al. 2008). The exact
mechanisms by which n-3 fatty acids exert a cardioprotective effect are unclear but
are being better defined. n-3 fatty acids can influence many aspects of CVD
pathogenesis, including arrhythmias, lipid concentrations, blood pressure, platelet
aggregation, vascular relaxation, inflammation, and likely arterial cholesterol
delivery. For example, n-3 fatty acids affect the expression of several key proteins
as modulators of many genes involved in lipid metabolism, inflammation, and
smooth muscle cell proliferation, genes that can play a pivotal role in prevention
and treatment of CVD and atherosclerosis (Fig. 10.3) (Jung et al. 2008).
Additionally, epidemiological studies suggest a protective effect of olive oil
(monounsaturated fatty acids rich) consumption on CVD (Covas et al. 2007). In
agreement with this, genes related with atherosclerosis processes were modulated
after olive oil ingestion in humans (Konstantinidou et al. 2009). Also, olive oil
polyphenols enhance the expression of cholesterol efflux related genes in vivo in
humans, according to a randomized controlled trial (Farrás et al. 2013).
Other study explored the overall nutrigenomic effect associated with a TMD
(Castañer et al. 2013). Of 18 cardiovascular canonical pathway analyses, 12
pathways were differentially expressed, and 43 % of pathways were modulated by
TMD supplemented with VOO or nuts; the most prevalent pathways were related
to atherosclerosis and hypertension.
However, a recent systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials showed no evidence to support the use of vitamin and antioxidant
supplements for prevention of CVDs (Myung et al. 2013).
10 Natural Foods as Biosystems to Face Noncommunicable Chronic Diseases
309