mushrooms were studied for water solubility, thermolability, and dialysis. These
authors suggested that proteins were responsible for most of the insecticidal
activity of mushroom sporomes and they pointed out that these proteins might be
an important source of plant protection against insects. Among proteins, lectins
and hemolysins were good insecticide candidates because the toxicities were not
affected by protease. Afterwards, Birck et al. (2004) described a new lectin family,
with structure similar to actinoporins, extracted from the red cracking bolete
(Xerocomellus chrysenteron). One member of this family, the lectin XCL from
Xerocomus chrysenteron induced drastic changes in the actin cytoskeleton after
sugar binding at the cell surface and internalization, and therefore has potent
insecticidal activity. The model insects evaluated were Spodoptera littoralis
(Boisduval) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and D. melanogaster (Miegen) (Diptera:
Drosophilidae). Insecticidal effects have been also reported for the highly appreciated EEM Cantharellus cibarius (Cieniecka et al. 2007). Besl et al. (1987) studied
the effect of dried sporomes of 127 species of edible and poisonous mushrooms on
larvae of D. melanogaster and found that some EEMs such as B. erythropus,
Xerocomus badius, X. chrysenteron, X. subtomentosus, and Hygrocybe punicea
showed a strong inhibition in the growth of the larvae of this insect. Probably, the
most well-known insecticide properties of an EEM are that of the fly agaric
(Amanita muscaria). Michelot and Melendez-Howell (2003), based on Muto and
Sugawara in 1970, considered that the putative fly attractant of this EEM is the
dioleine 1,317, a diester of glycerol and oleic acid and the ‘‘ibotenic acid’’ has been
attributed as the insecticide bioactive compound by Takemoto et al. (1964). An ether
extract from Ramaria eryuanensis, an EEM described from Yunan, China (Petersen
and Zang 1989), identified as ergosta-7,22-dien-3beta,5a,6beta-triol showed
insecticidal activity against larvae of Plutella xylostella (Wang et al. 2010). This
insect known as the diamondback moth is one of the most widely distributed insects
in the world, being recorded from more than 80 countries. Its control on cruciferous
crops costs annually more than one billion dollars, mainly with insecticides (Mohan
and Gujar 2003). Another ether extract from the edible mushroom R. eryuanensis
has been reported to have insecticidal activity against Mylhimna separate (Wang
et al. 2005). The larvae of this moth feed on a number of crops, including corn, rice,
or sorghum,and therefore are considered as one of the most serious pests in Asia and
Australia and have been recorded in 27 countries including China, Australia, New
Zealand, and some Pacific islands (Sharma and Davies 1983).
Nematicidal Nematicidal properties have also been recorded from EEMs. Dong
et al. (2006) found that mycelial extracts, in broth culture, from the EEMs Amanita
gemmata (=A. junqileia), Lactarius gerardii, and Strobilomyces floccopus negatively affect the growth of the parasite pine nematode Bursaphelenchus xylophilus.
This nematode has been devastating vast areas of pine forests in Asian countries
since the beginning of the twentieth century and from 1999 have spread into
European forest, causing worldwide concern, because once trees are infected with
this disease, they die some weeks later (Kazuyoshi 2013). This nematode is
additionally damaging the matsutake EEM production in Japan by killing Pinus
ponderosa host trees, showing how complex ecological interactions can be (Faier
6 Edible Ectomycorrhizal Mushrooms
195
authors suggested that proteins were responsible for most of the insecticidal
activity of mushroom sporomes and they pointed out that these proteins might be
an important source of plant protection against insects. Among proteins, lectins
and hemolysins were good insecticide candidates because the toxicities were not
affected by protease. Afterwards, Birck et al. (2004) described a new lectin family,
with structure similar to actinoporins, extracted from the red cracking bolete
(Xerocomellus chrysenteron). One member of this family, the lectin XCL from
Xerocomus chrysenteron induced drastic changes in the actin cytoskeleton after
sugar binding at the cell surface and internalization, and therefore has potent
insecticidal activity. The model insects evaluated were Spodoptera littoralis
(Boisduval) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and D. melanogaster (Miegen) (Diptera:
Drosophilidae). Insecticidal effects have been also reported for the highly appreciated EEM Cantharellus cibarius (Cieniecka et al. 2007). Besl et al. (1987) studied
the effect of dried sporomes of 127 species of edible and poisonous mushrooms on
larvae of D. melanogaster and found that some EEMs such as B. erythropus,
Xerocomus badius, X. chrysenteron, X. subtomentosus, and Hygrocybe punicea
showed a strong inhibition in the growth of the larvae of this insect. Probably, the
most well-known insecticide properties of an EEM are that of the fly agaric
(Amanita muscaria). Michelot and Melendez-Howell (2003), based on Muto and
Sugawara in 1970, considered that the putative fly attractant of this EEM is the
dioleine 1,317, a diester of glycerol and oleic acid and the ‘‘ibotenic acid’’ has been
attributed as the insecticide bioactive compound by Takemoto et al. (1964). An ether
extract from Ramaria eryuanensis, an EEM described from Yunan, China (Petersen
and Zang 1989), identified as ergosta-7,22-dien-3beta,5a,6beta-triol showed
insecticidal activity against larvae of Plutella xylostella (Wang et al. 2010). This
insect known as the diamondback moth is one of the most widely distributed insects
in the world, being recorded from more than 80 countries. Its control on cruciferous
crops costs annually more than one billion dollars, mainly with insecticides (Mohan
and Gujar 2003). Another ether extract from the edible mushroom R. eryuanensis
has been reported to have insecticidal activity against Mylhimna separate (Wang
et al. 2005). The larvae of this moth feed on a number of crops, including corn, rice,
or sorghum,and therefore are considered as one of the most serious pests in Asia and
Australia and have been recorded in 27 countries including China, Australia, New
Zealand, and some Pacific islands (Sharma and Davies 1983).
Nematicidal Nematicidal properties have also been recorded from EEMs. Dong
et al. (2006) found that mycelial extracts, in broth culture, from the EEMs Amanita
gemmata (=A. junqileia), Lactarius gerardii, and Strobilomyces floccopus negatively affect the growth of the parasite pine nematode Bursaphelenchus xylophilus.
This nematode has been devastating vast areas of pine forests in Asian countries
since the beginning of the twentieth century and from 1999 have spread into
European forest, causing worldwide concern, because once trees are infected with
this disease, they die some weeks later (Kazuyoshi 2013). This nematode is
additionally damaging the matsutake EEM production in Japan by killing Pinus
ponderosa host trees, showing how complex ecological interactions can be (Faier
6 Edible Ectomycorrhizal Mushrooms
195