techniques is needed so that augmentation can become competitive strategy for
managing arthropod pests. Many described species by academic researchers as
promising candidates for pest control have not yet been produced industrially since
no adequate rearing systems have been developed. Even with the already commercialized species reducing the cost of production is one of the major issues, as
an essential improvement to develop their use, for instance, outside-protected
crops and the major companies are investing efforts in this direction (Table 4.2). It
is remarkable that in spite of most biomanufacturers being small companies with
not a strong R&D branch, serious advances have been achieved, especially if we
consider that bioindustry has probably many hundred times lower budged than the
biggest chemical companies.
No serious economical estimations have been made about the contribution of
biological control in growing areas like Almeria, but main tomato producers stated
already savings of more than 80 % of chemical treatments, while beneficials
represent less than 1.5 % of the total investment made by the growers in the
greenhouses per year (Cabrera and Uclés 2012). Not to mention the socioeconomic
impact if pepper production would have disappeared due to inefficacy of chemicals
since supermarkets were going to stop buying the product from Almeria (Pardo
2010), or the great environmental contamination reduction and public health
improvement thanks to augmentative biocontrol. The ecosystem service provided
by natural and inoculative biological control was estimated as a worldwide value
of at least $400 billion per year (Costanza et al. 1997).
There are two main steps to reduce the cost of mass rearing arthropods
(Fig. 4.7), the use of carrying materials together with factitious prey or host to
eliminate the plants needed to grow the natural prey, and the utilization of totally
artificial diets that obviates the use of any arthropod component (in vitro). Most of
the productions in the past were based on a tritrophic system, and still some are,
with a plant where the host or prey is developed, commonly a pest, and the
parasitoid or predator. To produce some of the most used predators the plants have
been eliminated by using alternative prey, mainly eggs of the moth Ephestia
kuehniella Zeller (Lep.: Pyralidae) (Table 4.2), although some other alternatives
are consumed in less amount, like eggs of Sitotroga cerealella (Olivier) (Lep.:
Pyralidae), dipteral larvae of Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae), crustacean cysts of Arthemia sp. (Anostraca: Artimidae), coleopterous larvae
of Tenebrio molitor L. (Col.: Tenebrionidae), and lepidopterous larvae of Galleria
mollonella (L.) (Lep.: Pyralidae). To rear parasitoids of aphids it has also been
developed the rearing system of several pests, as hosts, in artificial media, then
using the same aphid host species, but eliminating the plants (Ance et al. 2002; van
Emden 2009; Boivin et al. 2012).
The elimination of the plant to reduce costs is an important step, but a further
problem remains due to the still high cost of the most used alternative prey,
E. kuehniella. Development of artificial diets is an alternative solution. Artificial
diets must satisfy the nutritional requirements of predators to ensure the continuous production of progeny of high quality (Cohen 2004). The Ephestia eggs can
be bought in the market between 500 and 800 €/kg, depending on the desired
112
E. Vila and T. Cabello
managing arthropod pests. Many described species by academic researchers as
promising candidates for pest control have not yet been produced industrially since
no adequate rearing systems have been developed. Even with the already commercialized species reducing the cost of production is one of the major issues, as
an essential improvement to develop their use, for instance, outside-protected
crops and the major companies are investing efforts in this direction (Table 4.2). It
is remarkable that in spite of most biomanufacturers being small companies with
not a strong R&D branch, serious advances have been achieved, especially if we
consider that bioindustry has probably many hundred times lower budged than the
biggest chemical companies.
No serious economical estimations have been made about the contribution of
biological control in growing areas like Almeria, but main tomato producers stated
already savings of more than 80 % of chemical treatments, while beneficials
represent less than 1.5 % of the total investment made by the growers in the
greenhouses per year (Cabrera and Uclés 2012). Not to mention the socioeconomic
impact if pepper production would have disappeared due to inefficacy of chemicals
since supermarkets were going to stop buying the product from Almeria (Pardo
2010), or the great environmental contamination reduction and public health
improvement thanks to augmentative biocontrol. The ecosystem service provided
by natural and inoculative biological control was estimated as a worldwide value
of at least $400 billion per year (Costanza et al. 1997).
There are two main steps to reduce the cost of mass rearing arthropods
(Fig. 4.7), the use of carrying materials together with factitious prey or host to
eliminate the plants needed to grow the natural prey, and the utilization of totally
artificial diets that obviates the use of any arthropod component (in vitro). Most of
the productions in the past were based on a tritrophic system, and still some are,
with a plant where the host or prey is developed, commonly a pest, and the
parasitoid or predator. To produce some of the most used predators the plants have
been eliminated by using alternative prey, mainly eggs of the moth Ephestia
kuehniella Zeller (Lep.: Pyralidae) (Table 4.2), although some other alternatives
are consumed in less amount, like eggs of Sitotroga cerealella (Olivier) (Lep.:
Pyralidae), dipteral larvae of Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae), crustacean cysts of Arthemia sp. (Anostraca: Artimidae), coleopterous larvae
of Tenebrio molitor L. (Col.: Tenebrionidae), and lepidopterous larvae of Galleria
mollonella (L.) (Lep.: Pyralidae). To rear parasitoids of aphids it has also been
developed the rearing system of several pests, as hosts, in artificial media, then
using the same aphid host species, but eliminating the plants (Ance et al. 2002; van
Emden 2009; Boivin et al. 2012).
The elimination of the plant to reduce costs is an important step, but a further
problem remains due to the still high cost of the most used alternative prey,
E. kuehniella. Development of artificial diets is an alternative solution. Artificial
diets must satisfy the nutritional requirements of predators to ensure the continuous production of progeny of high quality (Cohen 2004). The Ephestia eggs can
be bought in the market between 500 and 800 €/kg, depending on the desired
112
E. Vila and T. Cabello