of conservation biological control. The former is a common practice to increase
(augmentation) (Parrella et al. 1992) the populations of beneficials by supplying
them from commercial rearing systems. It can be inundative, releasing high
amounts to reduce pest populations in a short period of time (few days) (e.g.,
Stinner 1977; Sithanantham 1980; Cabello et al. 2012a), or inoculative, releasing
low numbers so that the biocontrol will be performed by the following generations
established in the crop (e.g., Hoffmann et al. 2002; Kuhar et al. 2004; Cabello et al.
2012a). The former is the preferred system since economic cost is lower if natural
enemies can properly develop in the crop for the entire cycle. Application of
complementary diets may help to develop the populations after inoculative
introductions when preys are scarce (see below).
Finally, with regard to the techniques of conservation of natural enemies, it
includes establishing agronomic practices that do not disturb, or even increase, the
natural enemies that spontaneously appear in the farm plot (Barbosa 1998). One of
the practices with higher disturbing effect over these natural enemies is pesticide
treatment. However, nowadays, the active agents that appear in the market tend to
be increasingly specific on target pest species with less detrimental effects on
natural enemies.
4.2.2 Analysis of Almeria’s Model
At least four of the major described ingredients to favor a transition from a
pesticide-based pest control to IPM systems are clearly stated in the model of
Almeria, i.e., a strong regulatory framework, extension of the knowledge, incentives for the farmers, and research and development of efficient biocontrol
programs.
The governmental positions, which have recently showed a shift in their interest
toward more sustainable agriculture, are essential to fulfill this transition. The
attitude of the governmental institutions has been underlined as one of the reasons
for the limited use of commercial biological control, since they have not clearly
provided long-term support for research and implementation (van Lenteren 2012).
This general statement was also applicable in Spain until the beginning of the
green revolution in Almeria, when the government did react competently forced by
the complete loss of efficiency of pesticides linked with the export problems after
the scandal created by detections of illegal residues. Their first measure was to set
up a deep surveillance program imposing high fines to the growers not fulfilling
the MLRs. EU agricultural policy had already abolished at that time many
chemical products in all the EU countries, but control had not always been
properly guaranteed. Second, they participated on the extension of knowledge to
establish non-chemical control alternatives, for instance with 30 advance classes
about IPM, teaching more than 750 field technicians in only 2 years in Almeria,
where both professors of public research centers and private sector participated.
Finally, they also supported the process with subsidies of up to 50 % of the cost of
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E. Vila and T. Cabello
(augmentation) (Parrella et al. 1992) the populations of beneficials by supplying
them from commercial rearing systems. It can be inundative, releasing high
amounts to reduce pest populations in a short period of time (few days) (e.g.,
Stinner 1977; Sithanantham 1980; Cabello et al. 2012a), or inoculative, releasing
low numbers so that the biocontrol will be performed by the following generations
established in the crop (e.g., Hoffmann et al. 2002; Kuhar et al. 2004; Cabello et al.
2012a). The former is the preferred system since economic cost is lower if natural
enemies can properly develop in the crop for the entire cycle. Application of
complementary diets may help to develop the populations after inoculative
introductions when preys are scarce (see below).
Finally, with regard to the techniques of conservation of natural enemies, it
includes establishing agronomic practices that do not disturb, or even increase, the
natural enemies that spontaneously appear in the farm plot (Barbosa 1998). One of
the practices with higher disturbing effect over these natural enemies is pesticide
treatment. However, nowadays, the active agents that appear in the market tend to
be increasingly specific on target pest species with less detrimental effects on
natural enemies.
4.2.2 Analysis of Almeria’s Model
At least four of the major described ingredients to favor a transition from a
pesticide-based pest control to IPM systems are clearly stated in the model of
Almeria, i.e., a strong regulatory framework, extension of the knowledge, incentives for the farmers, and research and development of efficient biocontrol
programs.
The governmental positions, which have recently showed a shift in their interest
toward more sustainable agriculture, are essential to fulfill this transition. The
attitude of the governmental institutions has been underlined as one of the reasons
for the limited use of commercial biological control, since they have not clearly
provided long-term support for research and implementation (van Lenteren 2012).
This general statement was also applicable in Spain until the beginning of the
green revolution in Almeria, when the government did react competently forced by
the complete loss of efficiency of pesticides linked with the export problems after
the scandal created by detections of illegal residues. Their first measure was to set
up a deep surveillance program imposing high fines to the growers not fulfilling
the MLRs. EU agricultural policy had already abolished at that time many
chemical products in all the EU countries, but control had not always been
properly guaranteed. Second, they participated on the extension of knowledge to
establish non-chemical control alternatives, for instance with 30 advance classes
about IPM, teaching more than 750 field technicians in only 2 years in Almeria,
where both professors of public research centers and private sector participated.
Finally, they also supported the process with subsidies of up to 50 % of the cost of
108
E. Vila and T. Cabello