204
J.G. Bell and R. Waagbø
Fish protein also contains bioactive peptides that can be released by fermentation.
Feeding a fermented fish protein concentrate (FPC) to mice for 7 days resulted
in enhanced phagocytic activity of peritoneal macrophages (Duarte et al. 2006).
In addition, intestinal IgA + cells were increased along with concentrations of IL-4,
IL-6 and IL-10 in mice fed FPC.
Clearly consumption of fish protein and hydrolysates can have a wide range of
benefits for cardiovascular function as well as enhancing non-specific immune
defence and glucose metabolism. There is also more recent evidence that
supplementing fish protein hydrolysates, from blue whiting, cod, plaice and salmon,
can have anti-proliferative activity against human breast cancer cell lines grown in
vitro (Picot et al. 2006).
6.8 Micronutrients in Feed and Fish
The intuitive opinion, that fish and seafood are healthy and nutritious relies not only
on the content of n-3 HUFA, as discussed above, but also on the balanced content
of micronutrients. Selected vitamins and minerals, present in high concentrations in
seafood, are of special interest for their roles in prevention of life style disorders,
such as CHD (vitamin B12, McCully 1991; selenium, Suadicani et al. 1992),
osteoporosis (calcium, vitamin D), cancer (selenium, Albanes et al 1999), impaired
vision (vitamin A), neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders (B vitamins),
developmental disorders (vitamin A) and iodine deficiency disorders (iodine). For
these reasons, national food administrations routinely advise people to increase
their seafood consumption (SACN/COT 2004; Norwegian Scientific Committee for
Food Safety 2006).
Aquaculture research has shown that fish flesh reflects the feed content of selected
micronutrients and this allows the opportunity to tailor products both according to
market preferences and as healthy added value food (Baker 2001; Lie 2001).
Conversely, changes in feed micronutrient compositions and their bioavailabilities,
arising from the use of FM and FO substitutes, could constitute an element of risk
both for suboptimal micronutrient supply for the fish, as well as introduce undesirable
changes in the composition of the fish for the consumer.
6.8.1 Essential Minerals and Trace Elements
A vegetable FM substitute like soybean meal often contains lower concentrations
of minerals and in less bioavailable forms for the fish, for example, phosphorous in
the form of phytate (Table 6.3). Phytate is also regarded an ANF, since it seems to
impact on the digestibility of nutrients by chelating essential minerals, especially
zinc, magnesium and phosphorous (Richardson et al. 1985; Storebakken et al.
1998; Francis et al. 2001; Denstadli et al. 2006), and are thereby potentially harmful
J.G. Bell and R. Waagbø
Fish protein also contains bioactive peptides that can be released by fermentation.
Feeding a fermented fish protein concentrate (FPC) to mice for 7 days resulted
in enhanced phagocytic activity of peritoneal macrophages (Duarte et al. 2006).
In addition, intestinal IgA + cells were increased along with concentrations of IL-4,
IL-6 and IL-10 in mice fed FPC.
Clearly consumption of fish protein and hydrolysates can have a wide range of
benefits for cardiovascular function as well as enhancing non-specific immune
defence and glucose metabolism. There is also more recent evidence that
supplementing fish protein hydrolysates, from blue whiting, cod, plaice and salmon,
can have anti-proliferative activity against human breast cancer cell lines grown in
vitro (Picot et al. 2006).
6.8 Micronutrients in Feed and Fish
The intuitive opinion, that fish and seafood are healthy and nutritious relies not only
on the content of n-3 HUFA, as discussed above, but also on the balanced content
of micronutrients. Selected vitamins and minerals, present in high concentrations in
seafood, are of special interest for their roles in prevention of life style disorders,
such as CHD (vitamin B12, McCully 1991; selenium, Suadicani et al. 1992),
osteoporosis (calcium, vitamin D), cancer (selenium, Albanes et al 1999), impaired
vision (vitamin A), neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders (B vitamins),
developmental disorders (vitamin A) and iodine deficiency disorders (iodine). For
these reasons, national food administrations routinely advise people to increase
their seafood consumption (SACN/COT 2004; Norwegian Scientific Committee for
Food Safety 2006).
Aquaculture research has shown that fish flesh reflects the feed content of selected
micronutrients and this allows the opportunity to tailor products both according to
market preferences and as healthy added value food (Baker 2001; Lie 2001).
Conversely, changes in feed micronutrient compositions and their bioavailabilities,
arising from the use of FM and FO substitutes, could constitute an element of risk
both for suboptimal micronutrient supply for the fish, as well as introduce undesirable
changes in the composition of the fish for the consumer.
6.8.1 Essential Minerals and Trace Elements
A vegetable FM substitute like soybean meal often contains lower concentrations
of minerals and in less bioavailable forms for the fish, for example, phosphorous in
the form of phytate (Table 6.3). Phytate is also regarded an ANF, since it seems to
impact on the digestibility of nutrients by chelating essential minerals, especially
zinc, magnesium and phosphorous (Richardson et al. 1985; Storebakken et al.
1998; Francis et al. 2001; Denstadli et al. 2006), and are thereby potentially harmful