200
J.G. Bell and R. Waagbø
18:2n-6 can be of significant value in human nutrition. In addition, even when
salmon were cultured on 100% LO for the whole marine grow-out phase, flesh EPA
and DHA concentrations were 0.12 g and 0.28 g, respectively, while ALA was
3.48 g and LA 1.12 g per 100 g of salmon flesh (Bell et al. 2004a). These values are
not very different to those suggested by Simopoulos et al. (1999, 2000), who
recommended 0.22 g each/day of DHA and EPA, 2.22 g/d for ALA and < 6.67 g/day
of LA. The studies conducted as part of the EU RAFOA project, as well as
numerous other studies on FO replacement, have allowed us to advance our
knowledge on how farmed fish flesh can be “tailored” to deliver ratios of DHA/
EPA/18:3n-3/18:2n-6 that are beneficial to human health.
6.6 Recommended Intake of EPA and DHA for Human Health
and Concentrations Provided by Farmed Fish
There is now a considerable weight of scientific evidence to support the widely recognised belief that n-3 HUFA intake, especially EPA and DHA, have wide ranging
benefits for human health (SACN/COT 2004). But how much fish and n-3 HUFA do
we need to consume to provide realistic benefits? Over the past 20 years studies in
many countries have sought to recommend beneficial intake values for n-3 HUFA.
One of the earliest, established by the Committee on Medical Aspects of Food
Policy (COMA), recommended a daily intake of n-3 HUFA of 200 mg/day against
an estimated daily intake, in the UK in 1994, of 100 mg/day (DH 1994). By comparison, the recommendation of the Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition and
the Committee on Toxicity recommended increasing the intake up to 450 mg/day
(SACN/COT 2004), against national intake values of 282 mg/day of which 244 mg
were from EPA + DHA (Givens and Gibbs 2006). In terms of protection against
CVD, Singh et al. (1997) suggested that 2 g n-3 HUFA/day reduced mortality in
patients who had suffered a previous myocardial infarction. However, ISSFAL suggested in 2004 that an intake of 500 mg/day or 3.5 g/week of EPA + DHA should
provide optimal cardiac health in humans (www.issfal.org.uk).
So how much fish produced by European aquaculture, whether cultured using
predominantly marine raw materials or alternative feeds with increased vegetable
oil inclusion, requires to be consumed to meet these recommended intake values?
A moderate intake (~200 g/week) of Atlantic salmon, grown on FO containing diets,
can provide the ISSFAL weekly recommended intake (3.5 g) of EPA + DHA and
around 460 g/week of a salmon grown on 75% VO or 750 g/week of salmon grown
on 100% VO would meet the ISSFAL intake value for EPA + DHA (Fig. 6.3).
However, following the FO finishing diet period 200 g of salmon fed FO exceeds
the weekly intake value or 260 g of salmon previously fed 75% VO or 290 g of
salmon previously fed 100% VO would meet the recommended EPA + DHA intake
value (Torstensen et al. 2005; Fig. 6.3). It is also worth noting that the capelin oil
used in the RAFOA trials, during both the grow out and finishing diet phases, contains relatively low levels of EPA + DHA and using other oils with higher n-3
J.G. Bell and R. Waagbø
18:2n-6 can be of significant value in human nutrition. In addition, even when
salmon were cultured on 100% LO for the whole marine grow-out phase, flesh EPA
and DHA concentrations were 0.12 g and 0.28 g, respectively, while ALA was
3.48 g and LA 1.12 g per 100 g of salmon flesh (Bell et al. 2004a). These values are
not very different to those suggested by Simopoulos et al. (1999, 2000), who
recommended 0.22 g each/day of DHA and EPA, 2.22 g/d for ALA and < 6.67 g/day
of LA. The studies conducted as part of the EU RAFOA project, as well as
numerous other studies on FO replacement, have allowed us to advance our
knowledge on how farmed fish flesh can be “tailored” to deliver ratios of DHA/
EPA/18:3n-3/18:2n-6 that are beneficial to human health.
6.6 Recommended Intake of EPA and DHA for Human Health
and Concentrations Provided by Farmed Fish
There is now a considerable weight of scientific evidence to support the widely recognised belief that n-3 HUFA intake, especially EPA and DHA, have wide ranging
benefits for human health (SACN/COT 2004). But how much fish and n-3 HUFA do
we need to consume to provide realistic benefits? Over the past 20 years studies in
many countries have sought to recommend beneficial intake values for n-3 HUFA.
One of the earliest, established by the Committee on Medical Aspects of Food
Policy (COMA), recommended a daily intake of n-3 HUFA of 200 mg/day against
an estimated daily intake, in the UK in 1994, of 100 mg/day (DH 1994). By comparison, the recommendation of the Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition and
the Committee on Toxicity recommended increasing the intake up to 450 mg/day
(SACN/COT 2004), against national intake values of 282 mg/day of which 244 mg
were from EPA + DHA (Givens and Gibbs 2006). In terms of protection against
CVD, Singh et al. (1997) suggested that 2 g n-3 HUFA/day reduced mortality in
patients who had suffered a previous myocardial infarction. However, ISSFAL suggested in 2004 that an intake of 500 mg/day or 3.5 g/week of EPA + DHA should
provide optimal cardiac health in humans (www.issfal.org.uk).
So how much fish produced by European aquaculture, whether cultured using
predominantly marine raw materials or alternative feeds with increased vegetable
oil inclusion, requires to be consumed to meet these recommended intake values?
A moderate intake (~200 g/week) of Atlantic salmon, grown on FO containing diets,
can provide the ISSFAL weekly recommended intake (3.5 g) of EPA + DHA and
around 460 g/week of a salmon grown on 75% VO or 750 g/week of salmon grown
on 100% VO would meet the ISSFAL intake value for EPA + DHA (Fig. 6.3).
However, following the FO finishing diet period 200 g of salmon fed FO exceeds
the weekly intake value or 260 g of salmon previously fed 75% VO or 290 g of
salmon previously fed 100% VO would meet the recommended EPA + DHA intake
value (Torstensen et al. 2005; Fig. 6.3). It is also worth noting that the capelin oil
used in the RAFOA trials, during both the grow out and finishing diet phases, contains relatively low levels of EPA + DHA and using other oils with higher n-3