358
R. Hamilton et al.
aggregation signatures, which is common in particularly heavily exploited FSAs
(e.g. Indonesia and Philippines – YSM personal observation 2006; Sadovy and Liu
2004 ) . Validation efforts tend to focus initially on the reported sites and months. To
establish full timing of aggregation, validation should ideally be conducted during all
months of the year and for extended periods each month. Single “snapshot” visits to
sites are of limited use for seasonal protection, although may effectively serve spatial
protection initiatives by confi rming the existence of an aggregation site. Interviews
need to involve fi shers, particularly those using different gears, to obtain a detailed profi le of aggregating species and timing. CPUE information must be carefully collected
and the alternative possible hypotheses for any trends explored. Fish should be sampled for reproductive condition whenever possible and this could be done in fi sh markets if the source of the fi sh is local (see GSI in Chap. 9 ).
10.6.3 Conducting Research to Validate LEK on FSA
Many aspects of LEK pertaining to aggregations lend themselves particularly well
to being independently validated. Information on lunar and annual seasonality, FSA
location, species composition and purpose for aggregating (i.e. reproduction or
feeding) can be verifi ed by UVC or by examining the gonad state of fi sh captured
from a FSA (Chap. 1 , Table 10.1 ).
10.6.4 Underwater Visual Censuses
Divers can often make direct observations on whether or not a FSA is present, the
species aggregating and whether courtship or spawning is occurring. This process is
relatively simple and effective if local knowledge on FSA seasonality is detailed and
if the precise locations of FSA were previously documented with a GPS, or using a
good quality map. Independent validation at a potential FSA site will often be done on
SCUBA over days or a few weeks and typically includes activities such as estimating
the numbers and species of fi sh present and collecting indirect or direct evidence of
spawning (Chap. 1 , Table 10.1 ). However, given the spatial and temporal variation of
FSAs, several short or extended trips may be necessary or it will be diffi cult to determine what it means if no FSA is found. In this scenario, researchers cannot know
whether local knowledge was incorrect, they simply missed the exact location, visited
it during the wrong lunar or annual period or if FSA timing varies naturally.
Long-term UVC monitoring of a given FSA is typically conducted to determine
whether conservation measures in place at a FSA are working, to fi ne-tune management or for research (Colin et al. 2003 ) . While data collected from long-term
monitoring programmes primarily serve to inform adaptive management, another
important objective of monitoring is to validate LEK, especially in scenarios where
management strategies have been developed based purely on LEK (Hamilton et al.
2005a ) . For example, year-round monthly UVC surveys from a FSA in Manus,
R. Hamilton et al.
aggregation signatures, which is common in particularly heavily exploited FSAs
(e.g. Indonesia and Philippines – YSM personal observation 2006; Sadovy and Liu
2004 ) . Validation efforts tend to focus initially on the reported sites and months. To
establish full timing of aggregation, validation should ideally be conducted during all
months of the year and for extended periods each month. Single “snapshot” visits to
sites are of limited use for seasonal protection, although may effectively serve spatial
protection initiatives by confi rming the existence of an aggregation site. Interviews
need to involve fi shers, particularly those using different gears, to obtain a detailed profi le of aggregating species and timing. CPUE information must be carefully collected
and the alternative possible hypotheses for any trends explored. Fish should be sampled for reproductive condition whenever possible and this could be done in fi sh markets if the source of the fi sh is local (see GSI in Chap. 9 ).
10.6.3 Conducting Research to Validate LEK on FSA
Many aspects of LEK pertaining to aggregations lend themselves particularly well
to being independently validated. Information on lunar and annual seasonality, FSA
location, species composition and purpose for aggregating (i.e. reproduction or
feeding) can be verifi ed by UVC or by examining the gonad state of fi sh captured
from a FSA (Chap. 1 , Table 10.1 ).
10.6.4 Underwater Visual Censuses
Divers can often make direct observations on whether or not a FSA is present, the
species aggregating and whether courtship or spawning is occurring. This process is
relatively simple and effective if local knowledge on FSA seasonality is detailed and
if the precise locations of FSA were previously documented with a GPS, or using a
good quality map. Independent validation at a potential FSA site will often be done on
SCUBA over days or a few weeks and typically includes activities such as estimating
the numbers and species of fi sh present and collecting indirect or direct evidence of
spawning (Chap. 1 , Table 10.1 ). However, given the spatial and temporal variation of
FSAs, several short or extended trips may be necessary or it will be diffi cult to determine what it means if no FSA is found. In this scenario, researchers cannot know
whether local knowledge was incorrect, they simply missed the exact location, visited
it during the wrong lunar or annual period or if FSA timing varies naturally.
Long-term UVC monitoring of a given FSA is typically conducted to determine
whether conservation measures in place at a FSA are working, to fi ne-tune management or for research (Colin et al. 2003 ) . While data collected from long-term
monitoring programmes primarily serve to inform adaptive management, another
important objective of monitoring is to validate LEK, especially in scenarios where
management strategies have been developed based purely on LEK (Hamilton et al.
2005a ) . For example, year-round monthly UVC surveys from a FSA in Manus,