179
geographical conditions during spawning in the wild. This may be achieved using
a combination of natural or natural-resembling artificial light sources and tank colours. If placed outdoors, the 200 lx light intensity may be obtained by using waterrepellent shading nets (Fig. 11.1). The use of these nets will prevent excess lighting
as well as pH and salinity descent due to rainfall.
In any of the setups described above, animals, tanks, equipment to maintain
specific conditions, water flow and aeration should be checked twice a day, in the
morning and late afternoon. Water quality parameters should be monitored every day
in the morning. Depending on the seawater system used, the determination of different parameters will apply. Open seawater systems will require the measurement of
temperature, salinity and dissolved oxygen. It is not possible to fully evaluate the use
of semi-open or closed seawater systems, since there are not enough data regarding
reproduction and egg quality under these conditions. Nevertheless, if these systems
are the only option, determination of previous parameters, plus pH and nitrogenous
compounds (ammonia, nitrites and nitrates), is mandatory. In semi-open or closed
systems, these parameters should be kept as similar as possible to natural seawater
and according to the highest values reported for the culture of this species by Forsythe et al. (1991) and Oestmann et al. (1997). The technology for closed systems
has progressed since the end of the 1980s, and there is an increasing pressure to
reduce the aquaculture footprint by using these systems (Martins et al. 2010). However, cephalopods are highly sensitive to nitrogenous compounds and the removal
of these, to prevent a system overload which will translate into massive death, still
requires highly expensive technology, logistics and operational costs. Some trace
elements, in particular strontium and calcium, should be kept close to natural seawater values (Hanlon et al. 1989). The use of natural seawater is suggested. However, if, due to logistics, commercial seawater salts are used to produce artificial
seawater, its content should comply with these requirements to avoid malformations
and the death of hatchlings (Hanlon 1990).
In any case, temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, pH and nitrogenous compounds should be maintained according to values reported by Boletzky (1983) for the
species. There are reports of culturing cuttlefish beyond the maximum (Domingues
et al. 2001a) and minimum (Sykes et al. 2006a) temperature values reported for the
species, but a flow-through system was used in both cases, where changes in water
quality occurred slowly due to the high volumes of water utilized. Regardless of the
seawater system used, water flows should be high enough to maintain water quality
and sustain the best reproduction results.
If closed and semi-open systems are used, the use of UV filtration will be necessary to avoid pathologies, as described by Forsythe et al. (1991). Although the effect
of ozone on the species is not reported in the literature, its use is not suggested as a
way to attain similar results of salubriousness. Nonetheless, if used, measurements
of O 3 concentrations and the redox potential of water entering the tank should be
enforced. The application of EU Directive 2010/63/EU from January 2013 onwards
will impose the use of alarm systems locally and externally, to the person responsible for animal care, through SMS messages or similar systems. Not only should
these alarms be set to report a failure of water circulation in tanks or in the marine
11 Sepia officinalis
geographical conditions during spawning in the wild. This may be achieved using
a combination of natural or natural-resembling artificial light sources and tank colours. If placed outdoors, the 200 lx light intensity may be obtained by using waterrepellent shading nets (Fig. 11.1). The use of these nets will prevent excess lighting
as well as pH and salinity descent due to rainfall.
In any of the setups described above, animals, tanks, equipment to maintain
specific conditions, water flow and aeration should be checked twice a day, in the
morning and late afternoon. Water quality parameters should be monitored every day
in the morning. Depending on the seawater system used, the determination of different parameters will apply. Open seawater systems will require the measurement of
temperature, salinity and dissolved oxygen. It is not possible to fully evaluate the use
of semi-open or closed seawater systems, since there are not enough data regarding
reproduction and egg quality under these conditions. Nevertheless, if these systems
are the only option, determination of previous parameters, plus pH and nitrogenous
compounds (ammonia, nitrites and nitrates), is mandatory. In semi-open or closed
systems, these parameters should be kept as similar as possible to natural seawater
and according to the highest values reported for the culture of this species by Forsythe et al. (1991) and Oestmann et al. (1997). The technology for closed systems
has progressed since the end of the 1980s, and there is an increasing pressure to
reduce the aquaculture footprint by using these systems (Martins et al. 2010). However, cephalopods are highly sensitive to nitrogenous compounds and the removal
of these, to prevent a system overload which will translate into massive death, still
requires highly expensive technology, logistics and operational costs. Some trace
elements, in particular strontium and calcium, should be kept close to natural seawater values (Hanlon et al. 1989). The use of natural seawater is suggested. However, if, due to logistics, commercial seawater salts are used to produce artificial
seawater, its content should comply with these requirements to avoid malformations
and the death of hatchlings (Hanlon 1990).
In any case, temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, pH and nitrogenous compounds should be maintained according to values reported by Boletzky (1983) for the
species. There are reports of culturing cuttlefish beyond the maximum (Domingues
et al. 2001a) and minimum (Sykes et al. 2006a) temperature values reported for the
species, but a flow-through system was used in both cases, where changes in water
quality occurred slowly due to the high volumes of water utilized. Regardless of the
seawater system used, water flows should be high enough to maintain water quality
and sustain the best reproduction results.
If closed and semi-open systems are used, the use of UV filtration will be necessary to avoid pathologies, as described by Forsythe et al. (1991). Although the effect
of ozone on the species is not reported in the literature, its use is not suggested as a
way to attain similar results of salubriousness. Nonetheless, if used, measurements
of O 3 concentrations and the redox potential of water entering the tank should be
enforced. The application of EU Directive 2010/63/EU from January 2013 onwards
will impose the use of alarm systems locally and externally, to the person responsible for animal care, through SMS messages or similar systems. Not only should
these alarms be set to report a failure of water circulation in tanks or in the marine
11 Sepia officinalis