102
the differences in the immune response of the octopuses against the opportunistic
pathogen V� lentus (Ford et al. 1986).
Hanlon and co-authors (1989) reported bacterial infection of damaged eyes in
L� forbesi and Sepiotheuthis lessoniana. Infection of the vitreous humor with the
gram-positive bacteria Micrococcus sp. provoked one swollen eye much larger than
the other in occasions with cloudy-to-opaque corneal tissue.
Fungi
Reports on fungal activity are very scarce and most of them related to eggs’ embryonic development. A simple procedure to avoid problems during this stage is given
by Sykes et al. (2006) and in Chap. 11 of this book. Hanlon and Forsythe (1990a) also
described occasional fungal activity in O� vulgaris.
Parasites
Most wild cephalopods host parasites including protozoans, dicyemids and metazoans. Generally, cephalopod parasites are found in skin, gills, digestive tract, digestive glands and kidneys (Gestal et al. 1999; Hochberg 1982, 1990; McLean et al.
1987; Pascual et al. 1996). Among the protozoans, one of the main epizootiological
agents in both wild and cultured cephalopods is the gastrointestinal coccidian of the
genus Aggregata. This protozoan parasite produces a severe disease in octopods
and cuttlefish causing a malabsorption syndrome, diminishing nutrient absorption
and reducing immune response capability (Gestal et al. 2002; Gestal et al. 2007).
Dicyemids are endosymbionts that inhabit the renal sacs of cephalopods including octopuses, cuttlefishes and loliginid squids (Furuya et al. 2004; Hochberg
1990). No damage has been reported for dicyemids. In fact, a possible contribution
to eliminate ammonium from the host’s urine has been proposed (Hochberg 1990).
However, dicyemids could be a problem when the population rises so much that it
blocks the ducts of the renal sacs conducts.
Cephalopods are secondary, third or parathenic hosts for different metazoan
parasites, namely trematodes digenea, cestodes and nematodes infected through the
food chain (Hochberg 1990; Pascual et al. 1996). Among them, the nematodes anisakids are one of the most abundant and frequent parasites found in cephalopods
with important pathological effects (Abollo et al. 2001). Crustaceans, such as copepods and isopods, are also encountered parasitizing gills and mantle cavity of cephalopods, therefore affecting the body condition of the host (Pascual et al. 1996).
Mechanical and chemical damage
These types of damages share a very small occurrence but have been reported over
the years by several authors (Forsythe et al. 1987; Hanlon et al. 1984). Despite
A. V. Sykes and C. Gestal
the differences in the immune response of the octopuses against the opportunistic
pathogen V� lentus (Ford et al. 1986).
Hanlon and co-authors (1989) reported bacterial infection of damaged eyes in
L� forbesi and Sepiotheuthis lessoniana. Infection of the vitreous humor with the
gram-positive bacteria Micrococcus sp. provoked one swollen eye much larger than
the other in occasions with cloudy-to-opaque corneal tissue.
Fungi
Reports on fungal activity are very scarce and most of them related to eggs’ embryonic development. A simple procedure to avoid problems during this stage is given
by Sykes et al. (2006) and in Chap. 11 of this book. Hanlon and Forsythe (1990a) also
described occasional fungal activity in O� vulgaris.
Parasites
Most wild cephalopods host parasites including protozoans, dicyemids and metazoans. Generally, cephalopod parasites are found in skin, gills, digestive tract, digestive glands and kidneys (Gestal et al. 1999; Hochberg 1982, 1990; McLean et al.
1987; Pascual et al. 1996). Among the protozoans, one of the main epizootiological
agents in both wild and cultured cephalopods is the gastrointestinal coccidian of the
genus Aggregata. This protozoan parasite produces a severe disease in octopods
and cuttlefish causing a malabsorption syndrome, diminishing nutrient absorption
and reducing immune response capability (Gestal et al. 2002; Gestal et al. 2007).
Dicyemids are endosymbionts that inhabit the renal sacs of cephalopods including octopuses, cuttlefishes and loliginid squids (Furuya et al. 2004; Hochberg
1990). No damage has been reported for dicyemids. In fact, a possible contribution
to eliminate ammonium from the host’s urine has been proposed (Hochberg 1990).
However, dicyemids could be a problem when the population rises so much that it
blocks the ducts of the renal sacs conducts.
Cephalopods are secondary, third or parathenic hosts for different metazoan
parasites, namely trematodes digenea, cestodes and nematodes infected through the
food chain (Hochberg 1990; Pascual et al. 1996). Among them, the nematodes anisakids are one of the most abundant and frequent parasites found in cephalopods
with important pathological effects (Abollo et al. 2001). Crustaceans, such as copepods and isopods, are also encountered parasitizing gills and mantle cavity of cephalopods, therefore affecting the body condition of the host (Pascual et al. 1996).
Mechanical and chemical damage
These types of damages share a very small occurrence but have been reported over
the years by several authors (Forsythe et al. 1987; Hanlon et al. 1984). Despite
A. V. Sykes and C. Gestal