214
Y. Liu et al.
legal framework is problematic, excessive regulations or inappropriate policies may
suffocate producers, especially the smaller ones. For instance, obtaining a new
license in British Columbia can take up to two years and cost up to CAD 500,000
(Liu and Sumaila 2007 ) . The standardization and streamlining of policies and regulations at the local and national levels can help improve sustainability of salmon
aquaculture development. Importantly, an integrated approach to coastal ecosystem
management is required to address the existing and emerging environmental concerns related to salmon aquaculture.
International governance of salmon aquaculture is necessary given that it is a
global industry. A fi rst concern is the fact that the fi shmeal and fi sh oil used for fi sh
feed are traded internationally (even though they are primarily produced in few
countries, such as Peru, Chile, Denmark and Norway). The battle for fi shmeal and
fi sh oil will probably intensify, potentially resulting in the overexploitation and
depletion of small pelagic fi sh stocks if appropriate management regimes are not
implemented (Naylor et al. 2000 ; Pauly et al. 2001, 2002 ) . Secondly, trade disputes
between exporting and importing countries will continue to take place on account of
the protection of domestic markets. Thirdly, some environmental problems associated with salmon aquaculture are of a transboundary nature. Escapes from British
Columbia may, for example, cross the United States – Canada border and swim into
Alaskan waters (Naylor et al. 2003 ) . Hence, salmon aquaculture requires international standards or guidelines. Such international governance necessitates, however,
collaboration from multiple stakeholder groups at civil society, market and state
levels.
Conclusions
Despite its short history, salmon aquaculture has been rapidly and successfully
developed (Asche 2008 ) . There is little doubt that salmon aquaculture will continue
its growth, albeit not at the current rate (Liu and Sumaila 2008 ) . The industry is facing a number of challenges concerning social, economic and environmental aspects.
Various governing systems have been established to address different issues and
problems along the way. The overall governability of the salmon aquaculture industry can be improved through technological innovations, economic-based instruments and governance solutions.
Technological innovations have been considered as the top option for improving
productivity and reducing environmental impacts. At present, closed containment
production and integrated aquaculture system have been promoted as “green”
technologies that minimize environmental problems in salmon aquaculture. They
are environmentally friendly and technically promising. However, closed systems
require extensive capital investment and have high operating costs. Market instruments have attracted increasing attention and demonstrated a promising potential to
policy makers, because they can cost-effectively regulate salmon aquaculture.
Environmental costs are internalized through economic instruments such as taxes,
Y. Liu et al.
legal framework is problematic, excessive regulations or inappropriate policies may
suffocate producers, especially the smaller ones. For instance, obtaining a new
license in British Columbia can take up to two years and cost up to CAD 500,000
(Liu and Sumaila 2007 ) . The standardization and streamlining of policies and regulations at the local and national levels can help improve sustainability of salmon
aquaculture development. Importantly, an integrated approach to coastal ecosystem
management is required to address the existing and emerging environmental concerns related to salmon aquaculture.
International governance of salmon aquaculture is necessary given that it is a
global industry. A fi rst concern is the fact that the fi shmeal and fi sh oil used for fi sh
feed are traded internationally (even though they are primarily produced in few
countries, such as Peru, Chile, Denmark and Norway). The battle for fi shmeal and
fi sh oil will probably intensify, potentially resulting in the overexploitation and
depletion of small pelagic fi sh stocks if appropriate management regimes are not
implemented (Naylor et al. 2000 ; Pauly et al. 2001, 2002 ) . Secondly, trade disputes
between exporting and importing countries will continue to take place on account of
the protection of domestic markets. Thirdly, some environmental problems associated with salmon aquaculture are of a transboundary nature. Escapes from British
Columbia may, for example, cross the United States – Canada border and swim into
Alaskan waters (Naylor et al. 2003 ) . Hence, salmon aquaculture requires international standards or guidelines. Such international governance necessitates, however,
collaboration from multiple stakeholder groups at civil society, market and state
levels.
Conclusions
Despite its short history, salmon aquaculture has been rapidly and successfully
developed (Asche 2008 ) . There is little doubt that salmon aquaculture will continue
its growth, albeit not at the current rate (Liu and Sumaila 2008 ) . The industry is facing a number of challenges concerning social, economic and environmental aspects.
Various governing systems have been established to address different issues and
problems along the way. The overall governability of the salmon aquaculture industry can be improved through technological innovations, economic-based instruments and governance solutions.
Technological innovations have been considered as the top option for improving
productivity and reducing environmental impacts. At present, closed containment
production and integrated aquaculture system have been promoted as “green”
technologies that minimize environmental problems in salmon aquaculture. They
are environmentally friendly and technically promising. However, closed systems
require extensive capital investment and have high operating costs. Market instruments have attracted increasing attention and demonstrated a promising potential to
policy makers, because they can cost-effectively regulate salmon aquaculture.
Environmental costs are internalized through economic instruments such as taxes,