123
7 Ecosystem Health in the Context of Fisheries and Aquaculture…
at varying scales. The thermodynamics of the ocean may result in long-term change
observed through sea level rise. Temperature fl uctuation is associated with seasonal
variation or with phenomena such as El Niño and La Niña. Coastal development for
tourism, and as part of coastal sprawl and urban development, often happens quickly
and not necessarily with proper planning. Coastal infrastructure is primarily developed on an ad-hoc basis to support rising demands. They rarely account for possible
changes brought about by coastal hazards or global warming. Con fl icts among
various user groups in coastal zones are largely due to direct competition for space,
resources and economic gains. These can, however, also be accelerated by many
causes, for example, when the various governing institutions dealing with coastal
zone issues lack clarity in their vision and goals. The various governing agencies
that deal with overlapping issues need increased coordination, potentially posing
challenges to their traditional operations. The recent hype in stakeholder participation in fi sheries and coastal management adds another complication to the governance of coastal areas. In addition, the incompatibility of the mandates, goals and
concrete policies of the various agencies causes uncertainty and confusion among
stakeholders, and reduces the governability of the coastal zone. Improving ecosystem health requires efforts from the governing system to foster interactions among
coastal stakeholders through transparent and accountable processes. It also requires
a rethinking of the governing institutions. They must reconsider, for instance, the
scale issues affecting governability.
Compared to capture fi sheries and coastal zones, the overall level of governability of aquaculture is the highest. Aquaculture can be diverse, complex, dynamic and
of varying scales. The extent of each of these properties depends on species culture,
types of operation and areas where farming takes place. The number of actors and
their multiplicity is generally smaller in comparison to the other two systems. While
coastal aquaculture is highly governable, there are some concerns about aquaculture
and ecosystem health that qualify them as wicked problems requiring interventions
at global and national levels. For example, the ‘Good Aquaculture Practices’ (or GAP)
program promoted by the FAO aims to regulate and standardize farming operations
worldwide for food safety and environmental sustainability. Ethical considerations
are needed when discussing the contributions and threats to food security associated
with farming issue, such as the use of low value fi sh as raw materials in fi shmeal,
the conversion of mangrove forests and other land areas, and the space competition
between fi shing and aquaculture that takes place in coastal areas. Finally, similar to
large-scale capture fi sheries, aquaculture operations often receive high levels of
subsidies in comparison to the small-scale fi shing sector, adding yet another layer of
con fl icts and justice issues among fi sheries stakeholders.
Improving Governability of Ecosystem Under Stress
The focus on the ‘poor’ state of the ecosystem, in which way it is de fi ned, does not
suggest that governability of an ecosystem that is in good health can be neglected.
Rather, it re fl ects two observations: that the majority of the world’s marine ecosystem
7 Ecosystem Health in the Context of Fisheries and Aquaculture…
at varying scales. The thermodynamics of the ocean may result in long-term change
observed through sea level rise. Temperature fl uctuation is associated with seasonal
variation or with phenomena such as El Niño and La Niña. Coastal development for
tourism, and as part of coastal sprawl and urban development, often happens quickly
and not necessarily with proper planning. Coastal infrastructure is primarily developed on an ad-hoc basis to support rising demands. They rarely account for possible
changes brought about by coastal hazards or global warming. Con fl icts among
various user groups in coastal zones are largely due to direct competition for space,
resources and economic gains. These can, however, also be accelerated by many
causes, for example, when the various governing institutions dealing with coastal
zone issues lack clarity in their vision and goals. The various governing agencies
that deal with overlapping issues need increased coordination, potentially posing
challenges to their traditional operations. The recent hype in stakeholder participation in fi sheries and coastal management adds another complication to the governance of coastal areas. In addition, the incompatibility of the mandates, goals and
concrete policies of the various agencies causes uncertainty and confusion among
stakeholders, and reduces the governability of the coastal zone. Improving ecosystem health requires efforts from the governing system to foster interactions among
coastal stakeholders through transparent and accountable processes. It also requires
a rethinking of the governing institutions. They must reconsider, for instance, the
scale issues affecting governability.
Compared to capture fi sheries and coastal zones, the overall level of governability of aquaculture is the highest. Aquaculture can be diverse, complex, dynamic and
of varying scales. The extent of each of these properties depends on species culture,
types of operation and areas where farming takes place. The number of actors and
their multiplicity is generally smaller in comparison to the other two systems. While
coastal aquaculture is highly governable, there are some concerns about aquaculture
and ecosystem health that qualify them as wicked problems requiring interventions
at global and national levels. For example, the ‘Good Aquaculture Practices’ (or GAP)
program promoted by the FAO aims to regulate and standardize farming operations
worldwide for food safety and environmental sustainability. Ethical considerations
are needed when discussing the contributions and threats to food security associated
with farming issue, such as the use of low value fi sh as raw materials in fi shmeal,
the conversion of mangrove forests and other land areas, and the space competition
between fi shing and aquaculture that takes place in coastal areas. Finally, similar to
large-scale capture fi sheries, aquaculture operations often receive high levels of
subsidies in comparison to the small-scale fi shing sector, adding yet another layer of
con fl icts and justice issues among fi sheries stakeholders.
Improving Governability of Ecosystem Under Stress
The focus on the ‘poor’ state of the ecosystem, in which way it is de fi ned, does not
suggest that governability of an ecosystem that is in good health can be neglected.
Rather, it re fl ects two observations: that the majority of the world’s marine ecosystem